Journal of Horticultural Science

Abstract Introduction
Vertical farming has emerged as a transformative agricultural strategy, designed to meet the escalating demands for sustainable food production in an era of rapid global urbanization and climate change. By capitalizing on vertical space, this innovative system offers a compelling solution to the critical challenges of diminishing arable land and water scarcity, enabling substantial increases in crop yield per unit area. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), with its short growth cycle, compact morphology, and high commercial value as a fresh salad green, is widely regarded as an exemplary crop for cultivation in such controlled-environment systems. However, a significant technical challenge inherent to vertical farming is the development of pronounced environmental gradients within the cultivation structure. Key factors, particularly light intensity and air temperature, often vary considerably between the top and bottom levels. These non-uniform conditions create distinct microclimates that can differentially influence plant physiology, leading to inconsistencies in growth, development, and the accumulation of important phytochemicals. Consequently, achieving uniform, high-quality, and high-yielding production requires precise optimization of the cultivation environment. Two of the most critical and manageable factors in this regard are the vertical positioning of plants (cultivation height) and the selection of genetically suitable cultivars. Different heights within a system experience unique combinations of light and temperature, which can either promote or hinder growth and metabolic processes. Simultaneously, different lettuce cultivars possess inherent genetic traits that determine their response to these two factors, influencing their potential for biomass production or synthesis of quality-related compounds such as antioxidants. Therefore, understanding the individual and interactive effects of cultivation height and cultivar is fundamental to optimizing vertical farming protocols. This research was specifically conducted to address this knowledge gap, aiming to systematically quantify how different vertical cultivation heights influence the agronomic performance and nutritional quality of two distinct and commercially important lettuce cultivars: the green-leaf Lollo Bionda and the red-leaf Lollo Rossa.
Materials and Methods
This study was conducted in a research greenhouse using a vertical hydroponic tower system. A split-plot design in a randomized complete block design with four replications was applied. The main plot factor included three cultivation height levels: 40–70 cm (Low), 115–145 cm (Medium), and 190–220 cm (High). The sub-plot factor comprised two lettuce cultivars: Lollo Bionda (green-leaf) and Lollo Rossa (red-leaf). Plants were grown in a coarse perlite substrate with a recirculating Hoagland nutrient solution. Environmental parameters (light intensity and temperature) were monitored across heights. At harvest, quantitative traits (leaf number, plant height, leaf area index, and yield per unit area) and qualitative traits (total chlorophyll, anthocyanin, total phenols, and nitrate content) were measured using standard analytical methods.
Results and Discussion
The experimental results provided clear evidence of the significant influence exerted by both cultivation height and genetic cultivar.Cultivation height had a profound impact on growth and yield parameters. The intermediate height level (Level 2: 115–145 cm) consistently yielded the best performance, producing plants with the highest values for leaf number (17.6 leaves per plant), plant height (24.3 cm), leaf area index, and consequently, the maximum fresh yield per unit area (659.9 g m⁻²). This optimal outcome suggests that Level 2 provided a balanced microclimate, avoiding the light limitation prevalent at the lower level and mitigating the potential combined stress of excessive light and elevated temperature at the highest level. A strong and independent main effect of cultivar was also highly evident. Lollo Bionda demonstrated superior vegetative growth, achieving significantly higher values for leaf number (20.6), plant height (24.9 cm), LAI (0.15), and plot-level fresh yield (793.3 g m⁻²), highlighting its genetic predisposition for high biomass production in controlled environments. In a notable contrast, Lollo Rossa excelled in the accumulation of specific secondary metabolites and compounds related to quality. It exhibited significantly higher concentrations of anthocyanin (0.66 µmol g⁻¹ FW), total phenolic compounds (1.14 mg g⁻¹), and nitrate. Importantly, a statistically significant interaction between cultivation height and cultivar was detected for these quality traits. The most pronounced accumulation of health-promoting compounds occurred specifically in Lollo Rossa plants grown at the highest level (Level 3). In this specific treatment, anthocyanin content reached 0.83 µmol g⁻¹ FW and total phenolics reached 1.15 µg mL⁻¹. This indicates that the environmental conditions at the top of the tower, characterized by higher light and temperature, acted as a mild abiotic elicitor, stimulating the plant's phenylpropanoid biosynthetic pathway associated with defense and antioxidant production. Similarly, nitrate concentration peaked in Lollo Rossa at Level 3 (1075 µg g⁻¹ DW), a common physiological response often linked to the inhibition of the nitrate reductase enzyme activity under warmer conditions, leading to disrupted assimilation and tissue accumulation. Total chlorophyll content was predominantly determined by cultivar, with Lollo Bionda containing significantly more (0.71 mg g⁻¹ FW) than Lollo Rossa. From a systemic productivity perspective, a key agronomic result was the total harvestable yield from the vertical system, which reached 1.76 kg of fresh lettuce per square meter of floor area. This figure notably surpasses the standard yield range reported for conventional, single-layer horizontal hydroponic or soil-based lettuce production (1.1–1.5 kg m⁻²), providing tangible evidence of the enhanced spatial efficiency achievable through vertical farming.
Conclusion
This study confirms that vertical farming effectively increases lettuce production density. Optimal results require science-based management, with the intermediate height (115–145 cm) identified as best for growth and yield. Cultivar selection should align with production goals: Lollo Bionda for higher biomass yield, and Lollo Rossa for enhanced nutritional quality and color, though nitrate levels must be monitored at higher tiers. The interaction between height and cultivar supports precision management. These findings offer a practical framework for optimizing vertical farming systems. Future research should focus on advanced climate control and broader cultivar screening.

Abstract Introduction. The edible Mushrooms have emerged as a globally important non-animal protein source in human-diet. Nevertheless, monitoring data on raw materials used in mushroom production and their effects on yield remain scarce. Hence, a clear understanding of how consumed raw materials influence production outcomes, alongside an assessment of potential improvements, is necessary. The production and productivity of button mushrooms is controlled by several factors such as compost quality, mushroom strain, spawn, growing medium, environmental conditions and irrigation. The type of medium and its quality components are the most important factors affecting the productivity of edible mushrooms. Wheat straw, chicken manure and gypsum are the most widely used materials for the production of button mushroom compost. The nutrient content of these materials varies greatly depending on the source, which in turn leads to different yields. The industry currently faces multiple challenges: declining quality and availability of raw materials, rising costs of both materials and energy, narrow profit margins, and limited access to labor in rural areas. This study aims to investigate and monitor the raw materials employed in mushroom compost production and to evaluate their impact on production performance indicators at an industrial scale.
Materials and Methods. The investigation was conducted at the Negin-e-Fasal Compost and Mushroom Production Factory in Shahrekord, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, across five production periods (spring 2022, summer 2022, autumn 2022, winter 2022, spring 2023, and summer 2023). A total of 258 observations were recorded, each in triplicate; certain traits were measured in the compost production section, while others were assessed in the mushroom production halls. An overall quality index for mushroom production was established by selecting indicators through factor analysis and multiple correlation analysis to form a minimum data set. The selected indicators were interpreted, transformed into standardized scores (0 to 1) using linear functions, integrated into a single composite index, and a weighted quality index was subsequently computed.
Results and Discussion. The results showed that the mushroom production facility employed varying combinations of raw materials throughout the study period, leading to differences in yield, biological efficiency, and production rate. Button mushroom yield was highest in period 5 (spring 2023), increasing by approximately 25.6% relative to period 4 (winter 2022). Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that approximately 65% of the total variance was explained by four principal components with eigenvalues exceeding one, individual variance contributions below 5%, and cumulative explained variance exceeding 53%. The first principal component exhibited strong positive correlations with the quantities of sugarcane bagasse (0.57), poultry manure (0.60), and urea (0.65), as well as with the electrical conductivity (0.65) and water-holding capacity (0.44) of the cover soil. PCA further highlighted the significant effects of sugarcane bagasse, urea, ammonium sulfate, and straw.
Conclusion. This study demonstrates that mushroom production periods and seasons are influenced by raw material composition and environmental conditions, which collectively determine button mushroom yield. Among the raw materials evaluated, sugarcane bagasse, chicken manure, and urea consumption exhibited the most pronounced effects on yield. The yield, quality, and uniformity of harvested mushrooms depend on the physical, environmental, chemical, nutritional, and microbiological properties of both the compost and the casing soil layer, underscoring the importance of investigating the factors that govern mushroom quantity and quality. Optimizing compost composition and environmental conditions during preparation therefore represents a viable strategy for enhancing the yield of cultivated button mushrooms. Using principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson correlation analysis, this study comprehensively evaluated the effects of different raw materials on button mushroom production characteristics. The results highlight the pivotal roles of sugarcane bagasse, poultry manure, and gypsum, as reflected by their dominant loadings along the PC1 axis, which captured a substantial proportion of the total variance. Correlation analyses further substantiate the contribution of these primary raw materials as key determinants of mushroom yield and quality. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that appropriate raw material formulations can significantly increase mushroom production while supporting specific nutritional and productivity targets in mushroom cultivation systems.
Acknowledgements. This research was funded by Shahrekord Negin Fasal Mushroom Cultivation and Industry Company and Shahrekord University under contract number 490D/100 dated 06/11/1400. The authors wish to thank the company's CEO, Mr. Kazemi, for his generous assistance in conducting the research and for providing a research platform at the company.

Abstract This research aimed to investigate the effect of different concentrations and treatment durations of Ethyl Methanesulfonate (EMS) on the morphophysiological traits and genetic variations of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) ‘Viroflay’ cultivar. The experiment was conducted during the years 2022-2023 in the horticultural greenhouse of the University of Kurdistan, using a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design. Spinach seeds were treated with four concentrations of EMS: 0 (control), 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1%, and exposed for two treatment times: 75 and 150 minutes. After thorough seed washing, cultivation was carried out under uniform greenhouse conditions. Morphological traits, including plant height, shoot fresh weight, and shoot dry weight, were measured. Furthermore, several phytochemical indices were evaluated, such as flavonoid content, Vitamin C, antioxidant capacity, nitrate, oxalic acid, and mineral elements (sodium and potassium). To assess genetic variations, ISSR and SCOT molecular markers were employed to analyze DNA banding patterns.
The results indicated that increasing EMS concentration significantly reduced plant height, decreasing from 10.96 cm in the control treatment to 8.66 cm at a 1% concentration. Conversely, low EMS concentrations had a positive effect on biomass accumulation. The highest shoot fresh weight (15.56 g) and shoot dry weight (1.76 g) were observed at the 0.25% EMS concentration. Phytochemical indices were also affected by EMS; for instance, the highest ascorbic acid content (709.17 ppm) was observed at the 1% concentration. Additionally, the highest flavonoid content (13.17 mg/g FW) and antioxidant capacity (37.44 µmol/g FW) were recorded at the 0.25% EMS concentration. Molecular analysis results revealed that EMS treatment altered DNA banding patterns, leading to the appearance of new bands and the disappearance of some existing ones, suggesting an increase in genetic diversity. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that controlled application of EMS at low concentrations can be an effective method for inducing beneficial mutations and enhancing genetic diversity in the ‘Viroflay’ spinach cultivar.This research aimed to investigate the effect of different concentrations and treatment durations of Ethyl Methanesulfonate (EMS) on the morphophysiological traits and genetic variations of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) ‘Viroflay’ cultivar. The experiment was conducted during the years 2022-2023 in the horticultural greenhouse of the University of Kurdistan, using a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design. Spinach seeds were treated with four concentrations of EMS: 0 (control), 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1%, and exposed for two treatment times: 75 and 150 minutes. After thorough seed washing, cultivation was carried out under uniform greenhouse conditions. Morphological traits, including plant height, shoot fresh weight, and shoot dry weight, were measured. Furthermore, several phytochemical indices were evaluated, such as flavonoid content, Vitamin C, antioxidant capacity, nitrate, oxalic acid, and mineral elements (sodium and potassium). To assess genetic variations, ISSR and SCOT molecular markers were employed to analyze DNA banding patterns.
The results indicated that increasing EMS concentration significantly reduced plant height, decreasing from 10.96 cm in the control treatment to 8.66 cm at a 1% concentration. Conversely, low EMS concentrations had a positive effect on biomass accumulation. The highest shoot fresh weight (15.56 g) and shoot dry weight (1.76 g) were observed at the 0.25% EMS concentration. Phytochemical indices were also affected by EMS; for instance, the highest ascorbic acid content (709.17 ppm) was observed at the 1% concentration. Additionally, the highest flavonoid content (13.17 mg/g FW) and antioxidant capacity (37.44 µmol/g FW) were recorded at the 0.25% EMS concentration. Molecular analysis results revealed that EMS treatment altered DNA banding patterns, leading to the appearance of new bands and the disappearance of some existing ones, suggesting an increase in genetic diversity. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that controlled application of EMS at low concentrations can be an effective method for inducing beneficial mutations and enhancing genetic diversity in the ‘Viroflay’ spinach cultivar.
Additionally, the highest flavonoid content (13.17 mg/g FW) and antioxidant capacity (37.44 µmol/g FW) were recorded at the 0.25% EMS concentration. Molecular analysis results revealed that EMS treatment altered DNA banding patterns, leading to the appearance of new bands and the disappearance of some existing ones, suggesting an increase in genetic diversity. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that controlled application of EMS at low concentrations can be an effective method for inducing beneficial mutations and enhancing genetic diversity in the ‘Viroflay’ spinach cultivar.

Abstract Introduction
Sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is an economically important vegetable crop grown extensively under greenhouse and open field conditions worldwide. Increasing market demand and the high cost of imported hybrid seeds underscore the need for efficient local hybrid development. Diallel analysis is a powerful tool for identifying superior parents and determining the genetic control of yield and fruit related traits. By estimating general combining ability (GCA), specific combining ability (SCA), and heterosis, breeders can target promising parental lines and hybrid combinations with strong commercial potential. The present study aimed to evaluate eight inbred pepper lines using a half diallel mating design to determine the nature of gene action and identify high performing hybrids with superior yield and fruit characteristics.
Materials and Methods
Eighty sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) accessions were obtained from the germplasm collection of the Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK), Germany. In the first stage, all accessions were evaluated for a range of morphological, agronomic, and fruit quality traits. Based on fruit yield, fruit quality attributes, pericarp thickness, vitamin C content, fruit uniformity, marketability, suitability for domestic and international markets, and relative tolerance to major production constraints including damping-off, powdery mildew, and temperature fluctuations, eight superior genotypes were selected. These genotypes were subsequently self-pollinated for five consecutive generations to develop highly homozygous inbred lines. The resulting lines were crossed in a half-diallel mating design, generating 28 F₁ hybrids. All hybrids and parents were evaluated during the 2023–2024 growing season in a greenhouse at the South Kerman Agricultural and Education Center (Iran) under a randomized complete block design with three replications. Each plot included 20 plants spaced 30 cm apart, with 100 cm between rows. Two commercial hybrids, Zola and Lombard, were used as standard checks for heterosis estimation. Data were collected for days to maturity, fruit length, fruit diameter, pedicel length and thickness, plant height, fruit weight, total fruit yield across fifteen harvests, and TSS. Combined ANOVA across years was performed using SAS 9.2. Diallel analysis followed Griffing’s Method II, Model I using AGD R v5.1 to estimate GCA, SCA, additive and dominance variances, Baker’s ratio, narrow sense heritability and degree of dominance. Baker’s ratio and heritability were computed according to conventional equations, and dominance degree was estimated following Gravois (1994). Relative heterosis and standard heterosis percentages were calculated for all F₁ hybrids using Microsoft Excel by comparing hybrid performance with the mid-parent values and commercial check cultivars, respectively.

Results and Discussion
Significant genotypic variation was observed for all traits, providing strong evidence of genetic diversity among the parents and confirming their suitability for hybrid breeding. Both GCA and SCA effects were highly significant (P < 0.01) for all traits, indicating that additive and non additive gene actions contributed to trait inheritance. Baker’s ratio values showed that TSS (0.77), plant height (0.73), and fruit diameter (0.60) were predominantly influenced by additive gene action. In contrast, traits such as fruit yield (0.37), pedicel thickness (0.35), and days to maturity (0.43) were mainly governed by non additive effects. These observations were reinforced by narrow sense heritability estimates, which were moderate to high for fruit diameter (0.58), pedicel length (0.60), and TSS (0.76), but lower for yield (0.35) and pedicel thickness (0.38). Degrees of dominance greater than 1.0 for fruit yield (1.83), days to maturity (1.64), and pedicel thickness (1.90) indicated overdominance. Fruit weight also showed evidence of overdominance (1.33). On the other hand, incomplete dominance (degree <1.0) was detected for fruit length, fruit diameter, plant height, and TSS. These results align with previous studies demonstrating the importance of non additive gene action in pepper for key yield traits. Analysis of GCA revealed that parental line 400 was the most consistent and desirable general combiner for fruit yield, fruit weight, pedicel traits, and fruit diameter. Line 245 also performed well for yield related traits. Line 318 showed favorable GCA values for fruit weight and pedicel thickness, while lines 241, 208, and 265 exhibited significantly negative GCA for days to maturity, identifying them as good combiners for earliness. SCA effects identified several highly promising hybrid combinations. The hybrids 318 × 245, 296 × 400, 245 × 400, and 318 × 400 achieved the highest yields, ranging from 132 to 159 t ha⁻¹, all outperforming the parental means and commercial checks. These hybrids also showed strong SCA effects for fruit weight, fruit length, and pedicel thickness, indicating superior gene complementation and strong non additive interactions.
Relative and standard heterosis analyses revealed considerable hybrid vigor for fruit yield and several related traits. The hybrids 296 × 400, 318 × 245, 245 × 400, and 318 × 400 exhibited the highest levels of heterosis and achieved fruit yields ranging from 133 to 160 t ha⁻¹, substantially exceeding both parental means and commercial check cultivars. Among these, the cross 296 × 400 showed the highest standard heterosis for fruit yield (132.85%), accompanied by strong positive heterosis for fruit weight, fruit diameter, pedicel thickness, and TSS. Similarly, hybrids 296 × 245 and 296 × 265 displayed exceptionally high standard heterosis values exceeding 100% for fruit yield, highlighting their commercial potential. The positive relative heterosis observed for fruit weight, fruit length, fruit diameter, and TSS suggests that the superiority of these hybrids resulted from the simultaneous improvement of several yield components and quality traits.
Conclusion
This study successfully identified superior parental lines and high performing hybrid combinations using half diallel analysis. Line 400 was the strongest general combiner across multiple traits, while hybrids 318 × 245, 296 × 400, 245 × 400, and 318 × 400 showed outstanding yield performance (>150 t ha⁻¹) and significant positive heterosis for several yield related traits. Considering the predominance of non additive gene action for key economic traits, heterosis breeding is highly effective for sweet pepper improvement. Although results were obtained under a single greenhouse environment, multi location and multi year trials are recommended to validate hybrid stability and determine their suitability for commercial seed production.

Abstract Title
Performance Pattern and Multivariate Analysis of Quantitative Traits in Sweet Pepper Genotypes
Introduction:
Sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is one of the most widely grown vegetable crops in the world and is highly valued for both its nutritional and economic importance. Its fruits are rich in vitamins, antioxidants, and other beneficial compounds, making them an important part of the human diet. In recent years, the demand for sweet pepper has increased considerably due to changing consumer preferences and the expansion of greenhouse production systems. As a result, improving yield and fruit quality has become a major goal in sweet pepper breeding programs. However, yield is a complex trait influenced by many genetic and environmental factors, which makes direct selection based only on yield less effective. For this reason, plant breeders often focus on traits that are closely associated with yield, such as fruit number, fruit weight, fruit size, plant growth, and earliness. Understanding the relationships among these traits can help breeders select superior genotypes more efficiently and improve breeding outcomes. In addition, evaluating the genetic diversity within available germplasm is an important step in identifying promising materials for future breeding programs. Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate genetic variation among sweet pepper genotypes, examine the relationships among important morphological and yield-related traits, and develop simple predictive models for yield and its major components under greenhouse conditions.
Materials and Methods:
The experiment was conducted during the spring of 2023 in a research greenhouse located in Mashhad, Iran. A total of 72 sweet pepper genotypes were evaluated using a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Greenhouse conditions were maintained at approximately 25°C with relative humidity ranging from 40% to 50%, and standard ventilation, cooling, and heating systems were used throughout the experiment. Seeds were sown in sterilized 128-cell trays containing a substrate mixture of cocopeat, peat moss, and perlite. After reaching the four-leaf stage, healthy and uniform seedlings were transplanted into prepared greenhouse soil with 60 cm spacing between plants and 80 cm between rows. All plants received the same management practices during the growing season, including drip irrigation, fertilization, pruning, weed control, and pest management. Several morphological and yield-related traits were evaluated, including plant height, fruit yield per plant, fruit number, average fruit weight, fruit length, fruit width, cortex thickness, pedicel length, and pedicel thickness. Fruit dimensions were measured using a digital caliper, while fruit weight was determined using a precision digital balance. Plant yield was calculated based on the average of three harvests per plant. Statistical analyses included analysis of variance (ANOVA), correlation analysis, cluster analysis using Ward’s method, and multiple regression analysis to determine relationships among traits and predict yield components.
Results and Discussion:
The results showed significant variation among the studied genotypes for most of the measured traits, indicating the presence of considerable genetic diversity within the population. Such diversity is highly valuable in breeding programs because it increases the chances of identifying superior genotypes with desirable agronomic characteristics. Among the evaluated genotypes, G71 produced the highest yield (3138.06 g per plant), while G27 recorded the highest average fruit weight (301.30 g). Yield showed strong positive relationships with fruit number, fruit weight, fruit width, and plant height. The strongest correlation was observed between yield and fruit number, suggesting that increasing fruit set plays a key role in improving productivity in sweet pepper. Fruit weight was also positively associated with fruit width, fruit length, pedicel length, and pedicel thickness. Similarly, cortex thickness showed positive relationships with both yield and fruit quality traits, highlighting its importance in fruit development and market value. These findings suggest that several of these traits can be effectively used for indirect selection in breeding programs. Cluster analysis grouped the genotypes into three distinct clusters, reflecting clear phenotypic differences among the studied materials. Cluster 3 showed the highest yield and the greatest level of variation, indicating strong potential for selection and future breeding work. Cluster 1 was mainly characterized by better fruit quality traits, including larger fruit size and greater cortex thickness, whereas Cluster 2 generally showed weaker performance across most traits. The box plot analysis further confirmed the differences among clusters. Cluster 3 combined high yield with broad variability, suggesting the presence of promising genotypes for yield improvement. In contrast, Cluster 1 produced heavier fruits with better quality characteristics, making it more suitable for fruit quality improvement. These results indicate that different genotype groups may serve different breeding objectives depending on whether the focus is on yield or fruit quality. Multiple regression analysis also demonstrated that yield and its components could be predicted using simple morphological and phenological traits. Plant height, pedicel thickness, and earliness index were identified as important predictors of fruit number, while fruit width, fruit length, and cortex thickness had the greatest influence on fruit weight. The ability to predict yield using easily measurable traits may help breeders identify superior genotypes at earlier growth stages and improve the efficiency of selection programs.
Conclusion:
This study demonstrated the presence of substantial genetic and phenotypic diversity among sweet pepper genotypes grown under greenhouse conditions. Yield was mainly influenced by fruit number, fruit weight, and vegetative growth characteristics, while several fruit quality traits also showed strong positive relationships with productivity. Cluster analysis successfully identified genotype groups with different breeding potentials, where Cluster 3 appeared more suitable for yield improvement and Cluster 1 showed greater potential for enhancing fruit quality traits. In addition, the regression models highlighted the importance of easily measurable traits such as plant height, earliness, fruit dimensions, and cortex thickness in predicting yield and its components. Overall, the findings suggest that combining correlation analysis, cluster analysis, and regression models can improve the efficiency of sweet pepper breeding programs and support the development of high-yielding and high-quality cultivars.
Acknowledgement:
The authors sincerely appreciate the greenhouse staff in Mashhad, Iran, for their valuable technical assistance and support throughout the experiment.
Keywords:
Sweet pepper, Genetic diversity, Modeling, Cluster analysis, Production per plant

Abstract Introduction
Allium ampeloprasum ssp. persicum (Shadegan leek) is an endemic and economically valuable plant in Iran, particularly adapted to the arid and semi-arid conditions of Khuzestan province. Traditional cultivation methods in northern Khuzestan, characterized by wide ridge planting, often result in suboptimal productivity due to low plant density, inefficient water use, and high weed competition. Recent advances in planting patterns and harvest management strategies offer potential for improving yield and resource efficiency (Ojong et al., 2024). However, the interaction between planting patterns and cutting frequency and their combined effects on both vegetative and reproductive production in Shadegan leek remain inadequately studied. This research aimed to investigate these interactions to optimize dual-purpose cultivation strategies for enhanced leaf and seed yield.
Materials and Methods
A two-year field experiment was conducted during the 2019–2021 growing seasons at a research station in northern Khuzestan to evaluate the effects of planting pattern and cutting frequency on crop performance. The study utilized a split-plot design arranged within a randomized complete block framework with three replications. The main plot factor consisted of three distinct planting patterns: irregular manual planting, which served as the conventional control method; two-row ridge cultivation; and four-row ridge cultivation on 75-cm wide ridges. Assigned to the sub-plots were three cutting frequency regimes: 3, 5, and 7 harvests, all applied uniformly until the initial flowering stage. Each experimental unit included four ridges, each four meters long. To ensure data accuracy and minimize edge effects, all measurements were consistently taken from the two central ridges within each plot. Throughout both growing seasons, standardized agronomic practices—including irrigation, weeding, and fertilization—were meticulously maintained across all treatments to isolate the effects of the experimental variables.
A comprehensive set of agronomic and qualitative parameters was measured. These included plant density and height, the flowering rate at key phenological stages, and yield components such as the cumulative fresh leaf yield from all cuttings and the final seed yield at maturity. Seed quality was further assessed by measuring the 1000-seed weight and conducting standardized germination tests to determine seed viability. All collected data were statistically analyzed using SAS software (version 9.4). A combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the two-year period was performed after verifying the underlying statistical assumptions. For treatment means where the F-test indicated significant differences, a comparison was conducted using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test at the 5% probability level. This robust experimental and analytical approach was designed to provide reliable insights into the interactions between planting geometry and harvest management for optimizing production.
Results and Discussion
Plant density and survival were significantly influenced by cutting frequency and planting pattern, with four-row cultivation maintaining higher plant stands under frequent harvesting. Plant height remained stable across treatments, suggesting genetic control over this trait. The three-way interaction (year × cutting frequency × planting pattern) significantly influenced cumulative fresh leaf yield. The highest leaf yield (86.83 t ha⁻¹) was achieved in the second year under the combination of 7 cuts and two-row ridge cultivation, while the lowest yield (18.83 t ha⁻¹) was recorded in the first year with 3 cuts and irregular manual planting. The superior performance in the second year underscores the role of perennial adaptation and soil improvement over time (Wekgari et al., 2024). Flowering rate was highest (82.67%) under 5 cuts with four-row cultivation, while 7 cuts suppressed flowering due to resource depletion.
These results highlight a clear trade-off between leaf and seed production (Saini et al., 2022). Frequent cutting (7 cuts) combined with two-row ridge cultivation maximized leaf yield but compromised seed yield and quality. In contrast, moderate cutting (3 cuts) with high-density planting (four-row ridges) optimized seed production and quality.The highest seed yield (224.83 kg ha⁻¹) was obtained with 3 cuts and four-row ridge cultivation, whereas the lowest (44.16 kg ha⁻¹) occurred with 5 cuts and irregular manual planting. Frequent cutting adversely affected seed quality: the 1000-seed weight declined from 2.72 g (3 cuts) to 2.37 g (7 cuts), and the seed viability decreased from 83.5% (3 cuts with two-row cultivation) to 58.8% (7 cuts with four-row cultivation).
Conclusion
The study demonstrates that integrated management of planting patterns and cutting frequency is essential for optimizing Shadegan leek production. For maximal leaf yield, 7 cuts with two-row ridge cultivation is recommended. For high-quality seed production, 3 cuts with four-row ridge cultivation is ideal. These findings provide a scientific basis for developing sustainable cultivation protocols tailored to specific production objectives, thereby enhancing the productivity and economic viability of Shadegan leek farming in the region.

Abstract Introduction Mushrooms are a very large group of organisms. The number of species of mushrooms is estimated at 1.5 million, of which about 300 are edible, only 30 have been domesticated, and finally 10 species are cultivated commercially. Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.) of the genus Pleurotus are the most important cultivated edible mushrooms in the world after button mushrooms. Edible mushrooms are now considered one of the most important food sources in the world, and their cultivation is constantly increasing with population growth. For this reason, the importance of cultivating edible mushrooms is increasing day by day. In edible mushrooms, the mycelium that emerges from a single spore is sterile and requires hybridization between compatible monokaryotic mycelia to complete the sexual cycle. The oyster mushroom P. eryngii has also been given the name of king oyster mushroom due to its large edible organ. The mushrooms grow in small groups. The spores of this mushroom are white, and its mycelium has a connecting arch. The king oyster mushroom has a firm texture and short radial blades. Materials and Methods In this study, three species of oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostratus var florida, P. eryngii, P. corncopia) were crossed with each other in order to benefit from the special characteristics of each species and their aggregation into one species. Monokaryons of each species were prepared. Then, monokaryons of the two species were placed 5 mm from each other. For the cultivation of hybrid spawn and parents, three beds containing wheat straw (weighing 6.8 kg) were prepared for each and sterilized. After spawning, the beds were placed in a suitable environment and then the humidity of the environment was increased to 85-90% until the hybrids started to produce primary nodes and then pin and turn into mature heads. The heads at this stage were tested for spore production. Results and Discussion The results showed that from 300 crosses, only in 4 crosses did the Florida and eryngii monokaryons grow together and form a clamp connection, producing dikaryons, and four hybrids named H₁, H₄₀, H₁₁, and H₃₂ were obtained. While from among 300 crosses between Florida monokaryons and yellow fungus and 100 crosses between eryngii monokaryons and yellow fungus, no dikaryons were produced due to interspecific incompatibility. Spawns of the produced hybrids were prepared with Florida and eryngii and then cultivated in sterile media in a completely randomized design with three replications. The average base diameter of eryngii was significantly greater than that of Florida. The average base diameter of eryngii was not significantly different from that of the H₁₁ hybrid, while the average base diameter of eryngii was greater than that of the H₃₂ and H₁₁ hybrids and less than that of the H₁ hybrid. There was also a significant difference in the average base diameter among the hybrids. Among the hybrids, H₁ had a larger average base diameter than that of the H₄₀, H₃₂, and H₁₁ hybrids. eryngii had the highest fresh weight of edible organs with an average fresh weight of 120.5 grams. The average fresh weight of edible organs of eryngii was not significantly different from that of hybrid H₄₀. In terms of yield (fresh and dry weight), the hybrids H₁₁, H₁ and H₃₂ were very similar and were placed in a single cluster. On the other hand, the hybrid H₄₀ was similar to eryngii. In general, the hybrids and eryngii were placed in the same group in terms of yield. This is while Florida occupied a separate group. The result is that in terms of yield, the hybrids were similar to eryngii and the high yield traits from Florida were not transferred to the hybrids. Conclusion There was a significant difference between genotypes in terms of spawn running, and the hybrids were similar to eryngii and spawn running for a longer period than Florida. Hybrids H₄₀ and H₃₂ were earlier than their parents and other hybrids because they had shorter days to first pin emergence and ultimately shorter planting period. Hybrid H₄₀ is considered a suitable hybrid with similar edible organ fresh weight to eryngii. Hybrid H₄₀ had higher yield (fresh weight) and biomass than other hybrids and was similar to eryngii. The least sporulation (spore germination) was observed in hybrids H₁ and H₁₁, which was even lower than eryngii. Hybrid H₄₀, although it seems to be a desirable hybrid in some traits, had high spore germination and was similar to Florida.

Abstract Introduction Currently, salinity stress is one of the most important challenges in the agriculture and is the main growth limiting factor of many plant species. Saline stress adversely affects the plant's physiological and biochemical process which leads to a considerable reduction of plant growth and yield. Shallot (Allium hirtifolium Boiss.) is a perennial plant from the Alliaceae family, which is one of the native and valuable plants of Iran and wildly grows in the slopes of the Zagros Mountain range. The nutritional and medicinal value of shallots is due to the presence of sulfur compounds, especially allicin in the bulbs. Materials and Methods The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of foliar application of salicylic acid on the changes in growth, physiological and biochemical traits of shallot under different levels of salinity stress in a factorial design based on a completely randomized design with three replications. The investigated treatments were four levels of salinity (0, 30, 60 and 90 mM NaCl) and four levels of salicylic acid (0, 1, 1.5 and 2 mM). Distilled water (control) and salicylic acid (1, 1.5 and 2 mM) were foliar sprayed on the whole plants at 4, 6 and 8 weeks after sowing date. At the end of the growing season (beginning of yellowing of the leaves of the plants), growth, physiological and biochemical traits were evaluated. Evaluation of lipid peroxidation, osmolality compounds and activity of antioxidant enzymes was carried out in the leaves of treated plants and the amount of pyruvate and allicin was measured in harvested shallot bulbs. Results and Discussion Various abiotic stresses restrict plant productivity, and many efforts have been made to reduce plant growth inhibition by alleviating the disorder’s effects of these stresses. Exogenous application of plant growth regulators has been reported as an economic procedure to improve plant resistance to environmental stresses. It has been previously reported that salicylic acid as a signaling molecule alleviated the adverse effects of different stress conditions. In this experiment, shallot resistance to saline conditions was enhanced by the foliar spray of salicylic acid. The results showed a significant link between salicylic acid treatment and improvement of bulb biomass under saline conditions. Lipid peroxidation regards to accumulation of malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide increased with increasing salinity intensity. Also, saline stress significantly enhanced the proline and glycine betaine content in stressed plants of shallot. The plant antioxidant activity induced under stress conditions increased the total phenol content as well as the activity of catalase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase and superoxide dismutase enzymes. The pyruvate and allicin content of the shallot bulb increased with increasing salinity stress. The decreased in the photosynthetic pigments (total chlorophyll and carotenoids) led to a decrease in plant growth with the intensification of stress level. So that the lowest leaf area, fresh and dry weight of bulbs were obtained in severely salinity-stressed plants (90 mM NaCl). Foliar application of salicylic acid increased the antioxidant compounds (total phenol, pyruvate and allicin) and the activity of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, POX, APX and SOD) limited the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxidation. The accumulated osmolyte compounds proline and glycine betaine were decreased in treated plant with salicylic acid. The treatment of salicylic acid considerably improved the chlorophyll and carotenoid content especially in salinity-stressed plants. Thus the application of salicylic acid, especially at a concentration of 2 mM, reduced the harmful effects of salinity stress on plant growth and bulb yield by increasing the photosynthetic pigments and consequently photosynthetic efficiency. Also increased growth in the treated plants with salicylic acid has been attributed to changes in the concentration of plant hormones, especially auxins and cytokinin’s (the most important plant growth-stimulating hormones). Nevertheless, the growth reactions of treated plants to salicylic acid are different depending on the used concentration, the plant species and the growth stage at the treatment time. Conclusion In several studies, the effects of salicylic acid on plant growth enhancement under unfavorable environmental condition attributed to salicylic acid-induced changes in plant biochemical and physiological processes. Based on the obtained results, the salinity resistance of the shallot plant in response to salicylic acid is related to the increased antioxidant capacity of the stressed plants, which leads to the improvement of the photosynthetic pigments, and consequently plant growth and bulb biomass under saline condition. Although the present study was performed in the glass greenhouse, the obtained findings showed that salicylic acid application could also be a promising treatment for improving salinity tolerance of A. hirtifolium under field conditions.

Abstract Introduction As an artificial light source, LED bulbs can help to grow better and faster greenhouse products. Meanwhile, blue and red light are important for plant growth. The quality of light in terms of color and wavelength can affect the morphological structure of the plants. Therefore, the use of additional lights in winter, when light exposure is less than normal, can improve plant growth and flowering. It is also advisable to change the quality of light by using artificial light sources in controlled environments such as greenhouses in order to change the quantity and quality of agricultural products, especially fruits. Materials and Methods In this research, the effect of complementary light and nutrition (commercial Calfomyth solution containing high calcium phosphorus and calcium elements along with micronutrient elements) as a pot experiment under non-soil culture conditions in the greenhouse, in the form of split-based plots experiment A completely randomized design with 3 light treatments including: natural light (control), 60% red light + 40% light blue and 90% red light + 10% blue light, and 2 nutritional treatments including: non-spraying with commercial fertilizer, Calfomyth and spraying A concentration of 2,000 in 3 replicates was established and implemented. The traits that were studied in this experiment are: 1- leaf number (count of leaves), 2- plant height by meter, with accuracy 0.01 m, 3- diameter with caliber with accuracy 0.01 mm, 4- Number of flowers (counting), 5- Time of flowering until the product reaches (counting the number of days), 6- Performance: Whole and red ripe fruits were planted and weighed separately from the total fruit weight Per plant was obtained in grams per plant. Statistical analysis was performed using JMP8 software and comparison of means was done using LSD test at 1% and 5% probability levels. Results and Discussion The results showed that the application of additional light on fruit yield, stem diameter and plant height, yield time and leaf number (p≤0.05) were significant. Spraying with Calfomyth could have a significant effect on stem diameter and number of leaves. In the traits such as fruit yield, number of flowers and leaves, the interaction effect of feeding and supplementary light was also significant. The highest elevation was observed for 60% red + 40% blue (25.38 m) and the lowest for light control treatment (20.72 m). Also, the shortest arrival time was 90% red + 10% water treatment in 29 days and the maximum time to reach the product was 45 days. The highest number of leaves belonged to 60% red + 40% blue treatment, as well as spraying with Calfomyth (118), the highest number of flowers (50) was related to 90% red + 10% blue and Calfomyth treatment, and the smallest number ( 15) was related to control treatment. Also, the highest yield (3553 g of fruit per plant) was obtained in Calfomyth treatment with 90% red + 10% blue treatment and the lowest yield (434 g fruit per plant) The control was light and non-foliar treatment. Although light is an important source of photosynthesis, photosynthesis can also be related to a series of optical regulators and optical sensors. Blue and red light cause different optical sensors and expression of genes, each of which can have a positive or negative effect on plant growth and development. Therefore, it can be concluded that the presence of both wavelengths (blue and red) is necessary for conducting, and for this reason, more research is now focused on achieving an appropriate optical composition. Conclusion In this research, all of the morphological traits examined in the tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) plant were subjected to additional exposure by LED bulbs, each of which had a special effect on their receptors in the plant. Maximize growth and yield in the plant. As expected, blue light on vegetative traits and red light were more effective on reproductive traits. It can be said that the existence of both wavelengths (blue and red) is essential for the better and complete growth of the plant. In addition to the positive effect of wavelengths, the positive effect of leaf spraying can also be observed, which, along with the neodymium, could improve growth. The results of this study showed that the performance and growth under the cover of LED light (red and blue combination) were superior to natural conditions. Therefore, it could be suggested that the use of these lamps, as well as spraying with Calfomyth commercial fertilizer, could be feasible for better production in controlled conditions (greenhouse). It seems that application of complementary lights with proper nutrition can improve the performance and growth of tomato plants in greenhouse conditions.

Abstract Introduction Onion (Allium cepa L.) is a vegetable with great nutritional value. In recent years, the cultivation of onion seedlings has expanded due to the rising production costs and limited water resources. The growth of high-quality seedlings is crucial for achieving optimal and high crop yield. Light quality is a significant factor influencing seedling quality, as it markedly affects the morphological and photosynthetic responses of plants. Currently, LED lights are employed in growth chambers to enhance seedling development. Another important factor influencing seedling growth is the cell volume of the seedling tray. Larger cells offer a more suitable environment for the optimal growth of seedlings; however, increasing the volume of the seedling tray may impose spatial constraints for producers. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of various tray cell volumes in combination with different light conditions to improve the growth and quality characteristics of onion (Allium cepa L.) seedlings. Materials and Methods To this end, an experiment was conducted in a factorial design comprising two levels of cell volume (28 cc and 18 cc) and three levels of light composition (75% red: 25% blue, 50% red: 50% blue and 25% red: 75% blue), with three replications, using the Azar Shahr onion cultivar (red and long-day onion). Seed were cultured in the growing substrates (2 coco peat: 4 perlite). After the emergence of the first true leaf (with a leaf length of approximately 5 centimeters), the plants were transferred to a growth chamber equipped with LED lamps and subjected to light treatments for a duration of 45 days. Ultimately, after the seedlings were removed from the growth chamber, various growth parameters were measured, including seedling height, length of the longest true leaf, root length, Pesodostem diameter and length, fresh and dry weight, photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid), Fv/Fm, photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, sub-stomatal CO₂ concentration, transpiration rate, total carbohydrate content and total phenolic content. At the end of the experiment, data analysis was performed using SAS software (version: 9.1). Results and Discussion According to the results, in the 18 cc cell compared to the 28 cc cell and at all light treatment, seedling length, length of the longest leaf and Pseudostem length increased and root length, fresh and dry weight decreased. However, in the 18cc cell, using a 75% red: 25% blue light treatment resulted in the highest quality seedlings with a length of 25.5 cm, Pseudostem diameter (2.13 mm), Pseudostem length (3.4 mm) and dry weight (34 mg). At all light levels, cell volume reduction resulted in a decrease in photosynthetic pigments (amount of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid), Fv/Fm, a decrease in substomatal carbon dioxide, photosynthetic rate, soluble carbohydrates and phenol content. However, the highest levels of these parameters were observed in the small cell, in the 75% red: 25% blue light treatment. At all it seems that, using a smaller cell volume reduces the root's access to oxygen, water and nutrients, leading to reduced root growth and some seedling quality parameters. Also, reducing the cell volume increases the number of plants per tray. This increased density reduces the seedling's access to the appropriate light treatment. However, using an appropriate light treatment can improve growth and physiological parameters. Overall, in the smaller cell with high planting density, the use of the 75% red: 25% blue light combination can lead to improved growth and increased seedling quality. Under red light treatment, plants have smaller stomata and can more effectively control the process of stomatal opening and closing. In this light, in addition to the entry of carbon dioxide, a smaller amount of water is lost, which also increases water consumption efficiency. Therefore, combining red and blue light can offset the negative effects of red and blue light and increase the rate of photosynthesis. However, the response of different plant species to different ratios of red to blue light may vary. Conclusion In conclusion, our findings indicate that utilizing trays with smaller cell volumes (which allows for higher planting densities) can be economically beneficial and space-efficient. However, to ensure optimal onion seedling quality, it is crucial to implement a light composition of 75% red and 25% blue during the growth period.

Abstract Introduction Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important vegetables in Iran and is cultivated in 51.499 hectares. The cultivated area of this crop in the short-day southern regions is 25.964 hectares, which is equivalent to more than 50% of the cultivated onion area in Iran. Commercial short-day onion cultivars are cultivated in most of these regions, so a large amount of currency is spent to import short-day onion seed. In addition, the increase in the currency rate in recent years has increased the cost of onion production in short-day southern regions. Therefore, it is very important to produce and introduce short-day onion cultivars. This research was conducted to produce half-sib families through open pollination among nine superior onion cultivars. The best half-sib families were selected in terms of bulb yield and storability. Materials and Methods This project was carried out in Isfahan and Khuzestan during three crop years (2020-2023). During two crop years of 2020-2022, a polycross genetic design was carried out among nine short-day onion cultivars (Sahar, Paliz, Saba, Savanasweet, Goldeneye, Duster, Impriaterize, Primavera, and Texas Early Grano) in the Isfahan location (Dastgerd Agriculture Research Station), and half-sib families were produced. The progenies of half-sib families along with their parents were evaluated in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 18 treatments and three replications in Khuzestan location (Behbahan Agriculture Research Station) during the crop year of 2022-2023. Seeds were sown in the nursery in early October, and seedlings were transplanted (at the two- or three-leaf stage) in late September. The earliest bulb time was estimated using the bulb ratio and statistical technique of cusums. The studied traits included leaf number and height, bolting percentage, bulb yield, days to maturity, mean bulb weight, mean bulb diameter and height, skin number, total soluble solids, dry matter, and bulb storage losses. Bulbs were harvested when 50-80% of the foliage top had fallen and collapsed. To calculate dry matter content of the bulb, 10 bulbs were randomly selected from each plot and their weight was determined. After drying complete samples in the oven (65 ̊C) and fixing weights (about 72 h), samples were weighed again, and dry matter was calculated. After harvesting and curing, bulbs were stored under uncontrolled storage conditions (no heating, cooling, or ventilation systems), and after 3 months, postharvest bulb storage losses were determined. The results were analyzed using SPSS v.26. software. Means of significant differences among treatments were determined at the 0.05 probability level using Duncan’s test. Correlation coefficients among traits were calculated using the Pearson method. Results and Discussion Bulbing occurred in the studied genotypes in a photoperiod of less than 13 h; therefore, all progenies and their parents were short-day genotypes. Palize cultivar produced the highest yield. The difference in bulb yield among this cultivar and Sahar, Saba, Savana sweet, and Goldeneye cultivars and Saba and Texas Early Grano half-sib families was not significant. The doubling bulb was not observed in the studied genotypes. The highest bulb dry matter percentage was found in Texas Early Grano cultivar. The decrease in the percentage of bulb dry matter in the Saba cultivar and Savanasweet half-sib families was not significant compared with the Texas Early Grano cultivar. The highest skin number was recorded in the Texas Early Grano cultivar. The decrease in the number of skins in Sahar, Primavera, and Saba cultivars was not significant as compared with that in Texas Early Grano cultivar. The lowest bulb storage losses were observed in Sahar cultivar. The differences in this trait among Paliz, Primavera, and Texas Early Grano cultivars and Paliz, Savanasweet, Duster, Primavera, and Texas Early Grano half-sib families were not significant in comparison to Sahar cultivar. The correlation coefficients among bulb yield with leaf number and height, mean bulb weight and diameter were positive and significant at 1% probability level. Differences in days to maturity were not significant in all genotypes; therefore, final progeny selection was made with emphasis on bulb yield and storage losses. According to these results and comparison of days to maturity, yield and bulb storage losses in progenies half -sib with maternal parent and parents' mean the half-sib, progenies of Saba, Daster, and Texas Early Grano were selected. Conclusion The results showed that Texas Early Grano, Saba, and Duster half-sib families with high bulb yields (from 65.18 to 68.29 t.ha^-1) and good storability (storage bulb losses from 11.79% to 15.41%) are promising genotypes for introducing as short-day indigenous onion cultivars.

Abstract Introduction Melon (Cucumis melo L., Cucurbitaceae family) is an important commercial fruit crop that is extensively grown throughout the world due to its generally very good adaptation to climate and soil. The quality of melon fruits represents a combination of a wide range of physical characteristics (fruit size, shape, texture, firmness, etc.) and chemical compositions (acidity, sugars, vitamins, phenolic compounds, etc.), which are very important for consumer acceptability and marketability. On the other side, high-quality fruit must be achieved in the field because after harvesting time all fruit attributes can only be preserved, not improved. Hence, harvesting time plays an essential role in determining quality and marketability as well as storage life of melon fruits. Moreover, the accurate determination of harvesting time and ripening stages of melon fruit have widespread application to improve its management. Despite the increasing consumption and the cultivation of various melon accessions in different regions of Iran, the physical characteristics and chemical compositions of some fruit melon accessions (particularly lesser-known accessions) during fruit ripening have not yet been evaluated in detail. With this background, the specific objectives of the study were, primarily, to monitor and compare the changes of physicochemical traits, total phenolics and antioxidant activity of two Iranian melon accessions (‘Chaghercheh’ and ‘Zamcheh’) during the ripening process and, secondly, to determine the optimal harvesting time to achieve maximum fruit quality and marketability. Materials and Methods In order to evaluate the influence of ripening process on quantitative and qualitative fruit properties of two lesser-known melon accessions (‘Chaghercheh’ and ‘Zamcheh’) have grown in Gonbad Kavous, the experiment was conducted according to a factorial design based on a completely randomized design with 4 replicates (five fruits per replication) during two years (2023-2024). The developing fruits were hand-harvested at five different developing stages from 10 days after fruit set up to fruit ripening (namely, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 days after fruit set) during June and July. Data from two years were combined and analyzed by Statistical Analysis System (SAS) software using analysis of variance and differences among means were determined for significance at P ≤ 0.05 using Tukey’s test. Pearson correlation analysis was performed to identify the relationship between the different physical and chemical characteristics. Results and Discussion The findings of this experiment confirmed that there were significant differences among the different harvest times in all measured factors for both accessions. The fresh weight and dimensions of fruit, thickness and percentage of pulp increased throughout fruit ripening and reached to the maximum values at last harvesting stage, while fruit firmness, peel thickness, percentages of peel and seed showed a descending trend in the same period. At full maturation stage, the both melon accessions exhibited the highest total soluble solids and pH, along with the lowest titratable acidity, resulting in the highest maturity index. As the ripening proceeded, levels of ascorbic acid, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity incremented, and reaching the peaks on 30th day after fruit set, but afterward mentioned factors reduced dramatically until the end of the harvesting period. Also, significant differences of all measured parameters were statistically detected among two melon accessions. At full maturation stage, the fruit fresh weight, fruit firmness, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, ascorbic acid, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity were varied from 2438.12 (‘Zamcheh’) to 2941.17 g (‘Chaghercheh’), 14.02 (‘Zamcheh’) to 20.66 N (‘Chaghercheh’), 13.17 (‘Chaghercheh’) to 15.23 °Brix (‘Zamcheh’), 0.59 (‘Zamcheh’) to 0.79 mg.100 g^-1 FW (‘Chaghercheh’), 17.80 (‘Zamcheh’) to 19.47 mg.100 g^-1 FW (‘Chaghercheh’), 21.34 (‘Zamcheh’) to 22.48 mg.100 g^-1 FW (‘Chaghercheh’), and 22.26 (‘Zamcheh’) to 24.08% (‘Chaghercheh’), respectively. Also, the antioxidant activity was positively correlated with total phenolics (r = 0.936) and ascorbic acid (r = 0.869). Conclusion Overall, the data of this study revealed the degree of maturity and the variety are main parameters controlling the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of melon fruit. The both accessions showed identical evolution trends throughout their growth and development. The period between 40 and 50 days after fruit set seemed to be the most active time of fruit ripening in both accessions, which growers can maximize marketability, nutritional value and quality of melon fruit by choosing the ideal harvest. In general, the both accessions are potential source of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity that can be regarded as an important nutrient for dietary and health of human. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Gorgan and Gonbad Kavous University for their cooperation.

Abstract Introduction Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), belonging to the Solanaceae family with a chromosome number of 2n=2x=24, is recognized as the second most cultivated vegetable worldwide after potatoes. Despite its global importance, a significant proportion of tomato seeds used in Iran are imported. To address this, a comprehensive breeding program has been undertaken, resulting in the development of over 1,500 inbred lines. The most promising lines have been selected for hybrid development. This study focuses on evaluating and comparing 26 selected hybrids out of a total of 180, intending to identify superior varieties in terms of yield and fruit quality. Gaining insights into the advantages of these superior hybrids can contribute to the development of varieties that better meet consumer demands while also promoting agricultural sustainability.   Material and Methods This research was carried out at the Agricultural Research Station in Mohammadshahr, Karaj City, Alborz Province, involving the evaluation of 26 selected tomato hybrids from the Abouraihan Campus of Tehran University. The experiment was arranged as a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with eight plants per plot. The hybrids were compared to three commercial cultivars—‘Matin’, ‘Brivio’, and ‘Bedero’—as well as an old hybrid, ‘H12’, used as a control. Seedlings were prepared in February 2024, with 32 seeds from each genotype sown into trays filled with a 1:1 mixture of peat moss and perlite. The spacing between rows was 2 meters, and the distance between two plants within a row was 50 centimeters. Throughout the trial, standard agronomic practices, including irrigation, fertilization, and pest management, were implemented. Evaluations encompassed both field and laboratory assessments, focusing on quantitative and qualitative traits. Over a single growing season, the hybrids were assessed for attributes such as fruit size, weight, color, and biochemical parameters including pH, total soluble solids (TSS), and titratable acidity. After the experiment, raw data were organized using Excel, followed by normality tests, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and mean comparisons via Duncan’s method in SAS software. Qualitative traits were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test and principal component analysis was performed with R software.   Results and discussion The analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the hybrids across various traits. Key quantitative traits evaluated included fruit yield per plant, fruit weight, number of fruits, calyx stability, and ripening index. Results showed that hybrid ‘H114’ produced the highest number of fruits (83), while ‘gH74’ had the lowest (38). The average fruit weight ranged from 62 grams in ‘gH15’ to 136 grams in ‘gH47’. Calyx stability was notably higher in hybrids ‘gH54’ and ‘H95’, which is important for maintaining post-harvest quality. Regarding ripening, hybrids ‘H186’, ‘H165’, ‘H163’, and ‘H114’ were among the earliest to mature, requiring less than 95 days to reach harvest readiness. In terms of shelf life, hybrids ‘gH168’, ‘gH181’, and ‘gH54’ exhibited superior durability, lasting up to 13 days. The study also identified significant correlations among traits; for instance, a positive relationship between fruit firmness and overall yield suggested that denser fruits are often associated with higher productivity. Qualitative assessments, which included fruit firmness, shape uniformity, and taste, showed a wide variation in firmness levels, with commercial varieties ‘Brivio’ and ‘Bedero’ displaying the highest firmness. Additionally, meaningful correlations among traits—such as the positive relationship between the number of fruits and total yield—were observed. The discussion emphasizes the implications of these findings for breeding programs, highlighting the potential to select hybrids not only for higher yield but also for improved quality traits like flavor and shelf life.   Conclusion In conclusion, this study emphasizes the importance of hybrid selection for optimizing tomato production. The results revealed significant differences among the evaluated hybrids in several key quantitative and qualitative traits. Some hybrids demonstrated the potential to rival commercial varieties used as controls. To identify the superior hybrids, comprehensive evaluation and analysis of the measured traits were performed, with prioritization based on their relative importance. All traits were assessed simultaneously across all hybrids, with certain hybrids excelling in specific characteristics. Based on the overall findings, hybrids ‘H163’, ‘gH55’, and ‘gH57’ were identified as the top-performing options. Further research involving long-term field trials under diverse environmental conditions is recommended to enhance the adaptability and practical viability of these hybrids in agricultural production.   Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully acknowledge Zhinodaneh Company and the University of Tehran for their support.  

Abstract Introduction
Iron is an essential element for plants, playing a crucial role in the structure of many oxidation and reduction enzymes and in the synthesis of chlorophyll. Its importance in nitrogen fixation and enzyme activity has been well-documented. However, in calcareous soils, such as those in Iran, non-chelated forms of iron are not effective in providing iron to plants and soil microorganisms. The use of iron chelates is considered the best solution to address iron chlorosis, particularly in alkaline soils. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers has led to the alkalinization of large agricultural areas, causing challenges such as reduced absorption of micronutrients, including iron. This experiment was designed to evaluate the effects of different particle sizes of micronutrients, including iron oxide and iron chelate nanofertilizers, on tuber quality. The potatoes used in this study were cultivated from seedlings produced through tissue culture.
 
Materials and Methods
A factorial experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with three replications at the greenhouse of the Agricultural Research Institute of Hamadan during 2018–2019 and 2019–2020. The experimental factors included: microtuber weight at three levels of 1-3, 3-5 and 5-10 g and different iron fertilizers at seven levels of Zero, 20 µmol iron chelate in the form of soil consumption, 20 µmol nano iron oxide in the form of soil consumption, foliar spraying of 1% iron chelate, foliar spraying of 2% iron chelate, foliar spraying of 1% nano iron oxide and foliar spraying of 2% nano iron oxide. The iron chelate fertilizer (Fe-EDDHA 7%) was sourced from Khadra Company and is water-soluble, with plant absorption at pH levels of 3–11. Nano iron oxide with a purity of 98% was obtained from Pishgaman Nano Materials, an Iranian company. Data analysis was performed using SAS statistical software. Bartlett's test was used to check data normality, and means were compared using Duncan’s Multi-Range Test at a 5% probability level.
 
Results and discussion
The results of the comparison of the mean number of eyes in the microtuber under the influence of the size of the tuber and iron fertilizer showed that the lowest number of eyes per tuber (3.18 eyes) was in the absence of application of iron fertilizer in the tuber 1-3 g and the highest number of eyes in the tuber (4.24 eyes) was in the application of 20 µmol iron chelate was obtained in microtuber 10-5 g. The results indicated that the number of tuber eyes, as well as iron, protein, and amino acid contents (alanine, glycine, methionine, and lysine), increased with the weight of the microtubers. Iron fertilizers had no significant effect on protein levels in microtubers weighing 1–3 g or 3–5 g. However, in 5–10 g microtubers, the highest protein contents (4.67%, 4.81%, 5.16%, 5.4%, and 5.67%) were observed with treatments of 2% iron chelate, 1% iron chelate, 2% nano iron oxide, 20 µmol nano iron oxide, and 20 µmol iron chelate, respectively. There was no significant effect of iron fertilizers on alanine in 5–10 g microtubers. In 1–3 g microtubers, treatments with 20 µmol iron chelate, 20 µmol nano iron oxide, 1% iron chelate, and 2% nano iron oxide resulted in the greatest increases in alanine levels. In 1–3 g microtubers, iron application did not significantly differ from the control. In 3–5 g microtubers, foliar spraying with 2% iron chelate increased methionine by 17.92%. For 5–10 g microtubers, the highest methionine levels (1.32 and 1.36 µmol.g^-1 FW) were observed with treatments of 20 µmol iron chelate and 2% iron chelate. The maximum lysine levels (2.19, 2.43, and 2.49 µmol.g^-1 FW) were achieved with treatments of 20 µmol iron chelate, 1% nano iron oxide (foliar spray), and 20 µmol nano iron oxide, respectively, in 5–10 g microtubers.
 
Conclusion
Nano iron oxide fertilizers were more effective than iron chelates in enhancing tuber quality. The nanoscale size of iron particles increases the number of reactive atoms, resulting in higher reactivity and efficiency. Consequently, the application of nano iron fertilizers requires less material while achieving superior results. The highest quality improvement of potato tuber was observed in microtubers of 5-10 g and foliar application of nano iron oxide fertilizer.

Abstract Introduction
The most significant reduction of the commercial value and quality of leafy crops, such as lettuce, is primarily caused by weeds. The most common weeds in lettuce fields include Lambs quarters (Chenopodium album L.), Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), and wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis L.). Although using chemical inputs is considered a successful method in weed control, the risk of accumulating chemical contamination in plants and reducing human health by using these products increased the idea of using safe and environmentally friendly methods. Cover crops are an environmentally friendly strategy for controlling weeds in agricultural fields, offering numerous environmental benefits. Rye (Secale cereale L.) and chickling pea (Lathyrus sativus) are well-known worldwide cover crops. Many studies have mentioned them for their ability to control weeds, improve soil conditions, and release nutrients. Also, hand-weeding is known as one of the simple but expensive weed control methods. In our study, we aimed to explore how rye and chickling pea cover crop residues, when used in monoculture and intercropping systems, can help reduce the need for hand-weeding and improve the yield of Iceberg lettuce, considering the importance of weed control in leafy products.
 
Materials and Methods
 In the spring of 2020, an experiment was conducted using a factorial design base of RCBD with three replications. The experimental treatments included monoculture and intercropping of rye (Secale cereal L.), and chickling pea (Lathyrus sativus) cover crops, control (without cover crops), and additionally, different levels of hand-weeding were implemented (once, twice, and no hand-weeding). The amount of seed used for the rye and chickling pea monoculture was 100 and 25 kg.ha^-1, respectively. For intercropping, 50% of the recommended seed was used. F1 Iceberg lettuce (Bruma Rz.) seeds were planted in a mixture of peat moss and perlite in a 1:5 ratio. Due to the short growing season in Ardabil (20°48' E and 19°38' N), the growth of cover crops was terminated 67 days after the sowing date using paraquat. Then, lettuce seedlings were transplanted manually by 25 × 25 cm inter-row spacing. Hand weeding was conducted at three different stages: once 15 days after transplanting, twice at 15 and 30 days after transplanting, and not at all at the time of lettuce harvest. In this experiment, in addition to investigating the dry weight of cover crops and weeds, weed control efficiency index and fresh yield and lettuce yield components such as number of leaves, plant height, crown diameter, and head diameter were measured.
 
Results and Discussion
The results indicated that the highest dry weight of cover crops was obtained from the rye monoculture (530.59 ± 30.15 g.m^-2), followed by intercropping (400.21.43 ± 10.37 g.m^-2). The lowest dry weight of Chenopodium album L. and Anchusa italica Retz. weeds (0 g.m^-2) were recorded in intercropping with one- and two-times hand-weeding. The dry weight of Sinapis arvensis L. in intercropping once, twice, and without hand-weeding, rye and chickling pea monoculture without hand-weeding was 0 g.m^-2. The lowest total weed dry weight was found in the intercropping of cover crops with once hand-weeding. The highest weed control efficiency indexes (100, 86.95, and 87.72) were observed with intercropping by once and twice hand-weeding, and chickling pea monoculture without hand-weeding. The highest yield of Iceberg lettuce (3.70 ± 0.82 kg.m²) was achieved by intercropped cover crops without hand-weeding. The maximum number of leaves (21.55 ± 2.69 and 21.44 ± 1.01), crown diameter (4.15 ± 0.13 and 4.18 ± 0.23 cm), and head diameter (20. 22.12 ± 2 and 22.65 ± 2.22 cm, respectively) were obtained from the chickling pea monoculture and intercropping.
 
Conclusion
The effectiveness of using cover crop residues for weed control depends largely on the quantity of their dry weight. In the treatments without hand weeding, the rye monoculture and intercropping reduced the dry weight of weeds. The presence of cover crop residues reduced weed growth, although hand-weeding was still a more effective method of weed control in vegetables. However, the results highlighted the impact of cover crop dry weight on reducing hand-weeding for lettuce. In terms of increasing the yield of iceberg lettuce, rye intercropping, and chickling pea were favorable for the Ardabil region's climatic conditions.
 
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Department of Plant Production and Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources at the University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran, for their financial support.

Abstract Introduction
The success of breeding programs depends on the existence of diversity in germplasms in terms of the desired trait or traits. Collecting superior watermelons and examining their characteristics provides valuable resources to researchers for breeding programs. Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thund) Matsum and Nakai) (Citrullus lanatus) has great diversity in terms of shape, fruit size, fruit skin pattern, fruit flesh color, seed length and width, and number, the seed in the fruit as well as the quality of the fruit is among its cultivars and varieties, therefore it seems that by examining the native cultivars it is possible to find desirable traits and use them in future commercial cultivars for breeding processes. Iran is the most important producer of watermelon seeds. These nuts not only meet the needs of the domestic market, but are also one of the export items, especially to Arab countries. Limited breeding efforts have been made globally on nutty watermelons. However, developing high-yielding and high-quality cultivars can improve water use efficiency and enhance export potential and foreign exchange earnings. In many central and eastern provinces of the country, nutty watermelons are commonly cultivated as a second or dry-season crop. Unlike edible watermelons, the yield in nutty watermelon cultivation is measured by the quantity of dry seeds produced, rather than the fresh weight of the fruit, as the seeds are harvested for use as snacks. The primary breeding objective for nutty watermelons is seed yield. Other key traits targeted for improvement include larger seed size, a higher kernel-to-hull ratio, and softer seed texture.  Therefore, due to the fact that it is necessary to investigate the cultivated landraces in each region, the genetic diversity and capabilities of each for genetic modification and improvement should be determined. This research investigates the genetic diversity of the indigenous s of Iran through the investigation of morpho-physiological traits.
 
Materials and Methods
In order to evaluate genetic diversity and eliminate weak and low-quality landraces in the first generation and to investigate genetic improvement in the second generation of 10 Iranian watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thund) Matsum and Nakai) landraces by examining growth and seed-related traits, a two-year study was conducted in Farouj County. Seeds of the landraces Jabani (4 lanrace), Sanbak (4 landrace), and Kalaleh (2 landrace) from Jovin, Kashan, and Gorgan were separated and collected based on fruit skin color and seed-related traits. Direct seed sowing was carried out in Farouj County lands using drip irrigation with a tape. Evaluation of 10 local breeds was carried out in the first year (first generation) in a randomized complete block design with 3 replications and 10 samples per experimental unit. Then, inter-cultivar and intra-cultivar selection was carried out among the 10 local breeds with regard to uniformity and especially data on key seed-related traits, including seed yield and kernel-to-seed percentage. The 4 selected landraces from the first year were evaluated again in the second year (second generation) in a randomized complete block design with 3 replications and 10 samples in the experimental unit.
 
Results and Discussion
Data analysis of the selected landraces  in the first and second years was performed as a split plot analysis of variance. The study of morpho-physiological and functional changes of different watermelon s in the first generation showed that the s of Stigma 1 and 2 and Jabani 1 and 3 were superior to the other landraces in terms of growth traits and fruit yield, but in the second generation, Jabani 1 had the best fruit yield in terms of weight and fruit flesh percentage and can be used as mother s for the improvement of nut watermelon. Also, in the first generation, the study of traits determining seed quality and quantity such as thousand-seed weight, percentage of kernel weight to seed, length, width and diameter, and seed coat thickness showed that Jabani 1 and 3 were the most desirable landraces. In the second year, the Jabani 1 and 3 landraces had the highest seed quantity and quality and were suitable for cultivation as nut watermelons. Comparison of the two generations of each of the selected landraces showed that most of the fruit and seed traits improved under the influence of generation, and the second generation produced heavier fruits with higher seed yield. Also, this improvement in fruit traits in Jabani 1 and improvement in seed traits in Kalaleh 1 was more significant than in others.
 
 
Conclusion
The evaluation of morpho-physiological and functional traits in the first generation of various watermelon cultivars revealed that Kalaleh 1 and 2, along with Jabani 1 and 3, outperformed the others in terms of growth performance and fruit yield. However, in the second generation, Jabani 1 demonstrated the highest fruit yield, particularly in terms of fruit weight and flesh percentage, making it a strong candidate for use as a maternal parent in nutty watermelon breeding programs. Additionally, the assessment of seed quality and quantity traits—such as thousand-seed weight, kernel-to-seed ratio, seed length, width, diameter, and shell thickness—in the first generation indicated that Jabani 1 and 3 were the most desirable cultivars. In the second year, Jabani 1 and 3 exhibited the highest seed quantity and quality, making them well-suited for cultivation as nutty watermelons. A comparison between the two generations of each selected cultivar revealed that most fruit and seed traits improved in the second generation, which produced heavier fruits with enhanced seed yield. Notably, improvements in fruit-related traits were most significant in Jabani 1, while enhancements in seed-related traits were more pronounced in Kalaleh 1 compared to the other cultivars.

Abstract Introduction High nitrate concentration in vegetables is a major threat to human health. Selenium is an essential element for human health due to its effect on plant growth and development and its presence in antioxidant systems. The consumption of vegetables has been emphasized by nutritionists and is increasing due to their high nutritional value, as well as the provision of fiber and antioxidant compounds. For this reason, many vegetables, especially fresh vegetables, are considered to be essential as daily food for human. To solve the problem of nitrate accumulation in crops, it is recommended to provide solutions such as: selenium element feeding or using ammonia-based fertilizers. Selenium is essential as a cofactor for the formation of essential enzymes glutathione peroxidases, which are present in all living tissues. This enzyme reduces cellular peroxides and prevents harmful oxidation in the cell. Reactive oxygen species such as hydroperoxides and hydrogen peroxide are also deactivated by these enzymes. On the other hand, calcium nitrate is one of the important fertilizers in agriculture, which helps to improve the growth and quality of products, especially vegetables, due to its nitrogen and calcium content. The use of calcium nitrate can help reduce problems such as fruit rot and increase plant resistance to diseases and various types of stresses.   Materials and Methods This research was conducted at the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center, Shahrekord, in 2022-2023. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized block design with 7 treatments in three replications. The treatments included sodium selenite at three levels (5.0, 1.0, and 1.5 mM) and calcium nitrate at three levels (5, 10, and 20 mM) and the control treatment. Each experimental unit contained 3 plants. After foliar spraying and applying treatments with sodium selenite and calcium nitrate, plant samples were collected and transferred to the laboratory. After two months of spinach growth (early July), various plant growth parameters were evaluated, including fresh and dry weight of roots and shoots, leaf area, plant height, and number of leaves. Several biochemical traits were also measured, such as chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoids, antioxidant capacity, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, nitrate content, nitrate reductase activity, and selenium concentration in the leaves. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) in the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Mean comparisons were performed using Duncan’s multiple range test at a significance level of p ≤ 0.05.   Results and Discussion Based on the results, foliar application of sodium selenite and calcium nitrate had a significant effect on the amount of chlorophylls a, b, total and carotenoids. The results showed an increase in the amount of chlorophyll a, b and total and total carotenoid with increasing the amount of calcium nitrate. Also, the highest levels of chlorophylls a, b and total and total carotenoids were obtained for the treatments of sodium selenium 1 and 1.5 mM. Moreover, the lowest amount of chlorophylls a, b and total and total carotenoids were obtained for the control and 0.5 mM. The highest amount of total phenols, antioxidant activities were observed in the treatment of 20 mM calcium nitrate and 1.5 mM sodium selenite. Also, the highest content of nitrate reductase enzyme activity was obtained in the treatment of 20 mM calcium nitrate and 1.5 mM sodium selenite. The highest amount of nitrate was obtained in the control treatment and the highest amount of selenium was obtained for the treatment of 1.5 mM sodium selenite.   Conclusion In this study, the effect of foliar application of sodium selenium and calcium nitrate on nitrate accumulation in spinach was investigated. In general, the results of this research showed that although selenium is not an essential element for plants, it can be used in different concentrations, especially in a concentration of 1.5 mM with the concentration of calcium nitrate by 20 mM to increase chlorophyll pigments in leaves. According to the results, foliar application of sodium selenite had a reducing effect on nitrate accumulation and an increasing effect on nitrate reductase enzyme activity and selenium accumulation inside the spinach plant. Therefore, foliar application of 1.5 mM sodium selenite is recommended for the production of spinach with the maximum amount of antioxidant compounds, selenium and the minimum amount of nitrate accumulation which can be effective in increasing the growth of the plant, and as a result, increasing amount of photosynthesis and carbon fixation, which ultimately leads to increasing the growth rate of spinach.

Abstract Introduction The limited amount of organic matter in most potato-growing soils in the country reduces their biological activity and limits the availability and absorption of some nutrients by plants (Khatar et al., 2017). One of the most effective management strategies in this field is to maintain and enhance soil organic matter, as improving the physical and chemical conditions of the soil can greatly help increase yield and achieve sustainable agriculture. Given the limitations and high costs of livestock and poultry manure, which are key components of organic fertilizers in the country, efforts should focus on new organic sources such as blood meal, as blood meal is used in smaller amounts per unit area while providing higher nitrogen content to plants.Blood meal is also known as a growth stimulant due to its high amino acid content (Ciavatta et al., 1997; Bhunia et al., 2021). So far, limited studies have been conducted in the world to investigate the effects of blood meal for important agricultural products. Furthermore, there are very few experiments to investigate the effects of blood meal especially under irrigation deficit conditions. Therefore, this project aims to investigate the effects of using blood meal as a nitrogen-rich organic fertilizer under stress conditions on growth traits, as well as the quality and quantity of potato production in the country.   Materials and Methods This research was conducted as a factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design at the Hamedan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center (Ekbatan Agricultural Research Station). In this study, two potato cultivars, Bamba and Sante, were considered as the first factor at two levels. The irrigation water amount was examined at three levels (100, 75, and 50 percent of Cumulative Evapotranspiration from Class A Evaporation Pan). Additionally, fertilizer treatments at three levels; chemical fertilizer, poultry manure, and blood powder were considered as the other two factors. The application of chemical fertilizers, used as the control treatment, was based on soil test results. This treatment involved the use of 120 kg of pure nitrogen from a urea source (260 kg of urea fertilizer per hectare), along with 150 kg of triple superphosphate, 100 kg of potassium sulfate, and two applications of complete micro-fertilizers: one at the flowering stage and another two weeks later. One third of urea fertilizer was applied at the planting, and the other two splits were applied as a top dress (the first application at the full coverage stage and the second application at the beginning of tuberization).It is worth mentioning that complete micro fertilizer injection was also performed in two simultaneous times in the blood meal and chicken manure treatments. The drip irrigation system was conducted as a tape type, and was placed at a depth of five to six centimeters on the ridge at the time of planting the tubers. The growth stage traits measured included: the time necessary to achieve 50% germination, date of full emergence, date of full coverage, number and length of stolons, leaf area index, fresh and dry weight of roots and stems, and finally, chlorophyll content, with the chlorophyll content being measured using the Gross method (Gross, 1999). At harvest time, the total yield was calculated and the tubers produced were separated into three sizes: seed, large, and small. Tuber dry matter percentage and water use efficiency were also measured. The resulting data were statistically analyzed using SAS 9.1 software, and treatment means were compared using Duncan's multiple range test with a five percent probability level.   Results and Discussion The analysis of variance results showed that the main effects of irrigation levels and fertilizer treatment types were significant on all growth traits and yield. The effect of potato cultivar was also significant for most growth traits (except for leaf area index and chlorophyll content) as well as for yield. Interaction effect of irrigation levels and fertilizer treatment types were significant on other growing traits, including the time to reach full coverage, plant height at flowering time, number and length of stolons, chlorophyll content, leaf area index and fresh and dry weight of roots and stems. The main effects of cultivar and irrigation treatment were significant at the 1% level (p≤0.01) on tuber size and water use efficiency. The tuber dry matter percentage was not statistically affected by cultivar at the 5% level, but irrigation treatment had a significant effect on tuber dry matter percentage at the 5% level (p≤0.05). The type of fertilizer was significant on the average number of tubers in all three sizes, as well as water use efficiency at the 1% level (p≤0.01) and on yield and percentage of tuber dry matter at the 5% level (p≤0.05).None of the two-way interactions of cultivar × irrigation levels, cultivar × fertilizer type, and three-way interactions of cultivar × irrigation levels × fertilizer type were significant in tuber size, total yield, tuber dry matter percentage, and water use efficiency. However, the interaction effect of irrigation levels × fertilizer type was significant on tuber production in all three sizes, as well as tuber dry matter, total yield, and water use efficiency. An increase in the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus leads to a relative increase in stolon length. While the opposite ratio leads to a decrease in stolon length. Establishing a proportional and balanced amount of these two elements and providing sufficient amounts of them depending on the nutritional needs of the potato leads to an increase in the number of stolons (Jackson, 1999). Recent research has demonstrated that chicken manure and blood meal are capable of significantly reducing stolon length and increasing their number under stress conditions. It seems that both of these types of organic fertilizers (blood meal and chicken manure) provide the potato plant with a balanced access of nitrogen to phosphorus under stress conditions, and by relatively increasing the stolon length and helping to increase its number, delay the potato plant's tuberization stage and achieve maximum storage capacity. Increased plant growth rate and faster canopy formation as a result of blood meal consumption, especially under deficit irrigation conditions, can be due to the low carbon to nitrogen ratio and zero lignin to nitrogen ratio, which results in faster mineralization and consequently more nitrogen provision in blood meal and increased nitrogen uptake efficiency in the plant. The increase in the number of tubers per plant in potato is positively correlated with the delay in entering flowering time and the increase in leaf area and stem growth in the stolon production stage before the start of tuberization (Menzel, 1985). In this study, blood meal had a positive effect on the fresh and dry weight of potato stems and roots, and also increased growth rate and created complete coverage in the stolon production stage. Therefore, blood meal had a positive effect on the number of tubers and ultimately the total yield. The results of this study demonstrated that under severe stress conditions, the use of blood meal positively impacted the number of tubers and total yield compared to chemical fertilizers (control) in deficit irrigation treatments. This was achieved by releasing amino acids and aiding in nutrient absorption. As a result, in conditions of severe stress, the use of blood meal regulates the effects of water stress and partially compensates adverse effects of deficit irrigation.   Conclusion Overall, the results of this experiment indicated that using chicken manure and blood meal significantly enhanced the vegetative growth and yield of potatoes compared to chemical fertilizers. Moreover, under deficit irrigation conditions, these organic fertilizers proved to be more effective than chemical fertilizers. Therefore, the use of these two organic fertilizers, especially blood meal, can help mitigate yield reduction under water stress conditions.

Abstract Introduction The Persian Shallot (Allium hirtifolium Boiss), an endemic and economically significant medicinal plant native to Iran, has garnered increasing attention in recent years due to its potent therapeutic properties and adaptability to diverse climatic conditions. Traditionally used in Iranian medicine, this plant boasts a rich phytochemical profile that contributes to its effectiveness in treating various ailments, including rheumatism, stomach ulcers, and microbial infections. Beyond these established applications, recent studies suggest that the Persian Shallot may also serve as a potential aquaculture regulator, further enhancing its value in both agricultural and pharmaceutical contexts. However, growing demand and the overharvesting of wild populations have raised concerns regarding the plant's long-term sustainability and conservation. Unsustainable harvesting practices pose significant threats to the genetic reservoir and ecological balance of its native habitats. In light of these challenges, there is a pressing need to promote sustainable cultivation practices and conservation-oriented harvesting strategies. Iran’s rich biodiversity and favorable agro-climatic conditions offer a strategic advantage for the cultivation, research, and export of high-quality medicinal plants such as the Persian Shallot. Research that focuses on evaluating local ecotypes and their nutritional and phytochemical characteristics can facilitate domestication efforts, genetic improvement programs, and the broader commercialization of this valuable species.   Materials and Methods This study was conducted in 2022 across six distinct natural habitats of Allium hirtifolium in Isfahan Province, Iran. These habitats, which differ in elevation and environmental conditions, were selected to capture a broad range of genetic and ecological diversity. From each habitat, 50 individual plant samples were collected during the growing season, resulting in a total of 300 samples. The primary objective was to evaluate and compare the morphophysiological and phytochemical traits of Persian Shallot populations across these diverse environments. Morphological traits assessed included the number of leaves per plant, leaf surface area, and the fresh and dry weight of bulbs. These indicators were selected for their relevance to plant vigor, productivity, and commercial value. For phytochemical analysis, fresh leaf samples were processed using acetone-based extraction. The contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, carotenoids, and antioxidant activity were measured spectrophotometrically. This biochemical evaluation aimed to provide insights into the plants’ adaptive responses to environmental variables such as altitude, temperature fluctuations, and soil conditions. Data analysis was performed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to determine statistically significant differences among populations. Cluster analysis was also conducted to group the habitats based on their morphophysiological and phytochemical traits. All statistical computations and visualizations were carried out using SAS, SPSS, and Microsoft Excel software.   Results and Discussion The results revealed significant diversity among Persian Shallot plants from different habitats, indicating high levels of biodiversity due to environmental and genetic factors. Variations were observed in morphological traits such as fresh and dry weight, leaf area, chlorophyll, carotenoid levels, and antioxidant activity across the different populations. Altitude was found to be particularly influential, with plants at higher altitudes showing larger leaf areas and higher chlorophyll concentrations. These adaptations suggest that environmental conditions such as temperature and sunlight availability at different altitudes strongly affect the plant’s growth and phytochemical profile. Phytochemical analysis also showed higher antioxidant activity in plants from higher altitudes, likely due to environmental stress factors such as low temperature and increased UV exposure. These findings underscore the importance of altitude in influencing the biological and chemical characteristics of Persian Shallot populations. Cluster analysis grouped the different habitats, revealing distinct patterns of trait expression that reflect the plants’ adaptation to their environments. Understanding how environmental factors like altitude affect plant traits is essential for developing breeding strategies aimed at improving yield and medicinal properties. The study emphasizes the need for selecting landraces with desirable characteristics for both cultivation and conservation purposes. By considering environmental gradients in plant selection and breeding, we can ensure that the genetic diversity and valuable traits of Allium hirtifolium are preserved.   Conclusions This study demonstrates the presence of significant biodiversity among Persian Shallot populations across six habitats in Isfahan province. The results suggest that altitude plays a critical role in shaping both genetic diversity and phytochemical composition, which are key to the plant's adaptability and medicinal value. The observed variations offer opportunities to select suitable landraces for specific uses, whether for their phytochemical content or their ability to thrive under certain environmental conditions. Further research should focus on identifying specific genetic factors contributing to this diversity. Molecular markers can be used to gain deeper insights into the genetic structure of these populations, aiding in the development of targeted breeding programs. By understanding the role of environmental factors and genetics in shaping plant traits, we can support the sustainable use and conservation of this important medicinal plant.

Abstract Introduction At present, garlic (Allium sativum L.) production is completely dependent on asexual propagation, but a wide diversity of bolting and scape formation is observed in garlic. Based on their ability to produce flowering stem (scape), garlic clones are classified into non-bolting, semi-bolting, and bolting clones. In non-bolting clones, scape is not formed or abort at early stages. In semi-bolting clones, cessation of scape development often results in the formation of very short scape between the leaves and development of the elongated leaf-like bracts in the center of the inflorescence. In bolting clones after exposure to low temperature during autumn and winter (vernalization) and long day during spring, long and thick scape is formed which contains inflorescence with flowers. Transition from vegetative to reproductive phase and formation of scape, inflorescences and flowers in plants includes a series of continuous stages which control by several gene groups. Vernalization reduces the expression of the flowering inhibitors like FLOWERING LOCUC C (FLC), resulting in increased flowering integrators expression like SUPPRESSOR OF OVER EXPRESSON OF CONSTANT 1 (SOC1), APETALA 1 (AP1) and APETALA 1 (AP2). So, a correct understanding of the vernalization control genes expression pattern will improve garlic flowering and breeding programs. The aim of this study was to investigate the relative expression of AsFLC, AsSOC1, AsAP1 and AsAP2 before and after vernalization in Iranian bolting, semi-bolting and non-bolting garlic clones.   Materials and Methods In this study, three garlic clones including, bolting (Mazand Zabol), semi-bolting (Langrud), and non-bolting (Hamedan) garlic clones were selected from vegetable collection of Bu-Ali Sina university (Hamedan, Iran). At first, RNA extracted from meristems of three clones monthly, from 4 to 20 weeks after planting (for AsFLC, AsSOC1, AsAP1 and AsAP2 expression analysis) and from inflorescence of semi-bolting and bolting clones at 24 weeks after planting (for AsSOC1, AsAP1 and AsAP2 expression analysis) at 2 biological replicates. Then, cDNA synthesized using Oligo d(T) primer and relative expression pattern of the mentioned genes were analyzed using quantitative Real time- PCR.   Results and discussion The highest expression of the AsFLC in all three clones were observed at 4 weeks after culture (before vernalization). Its expression in non-bolting clone at 4 weeks after planting was 2.03 and 1.13 times more than bolting and semi-bolting garlic, respectively. After vernalization AsFLC expression decreased in the meristem of the all three clones. The decrease in the relative expression of AsFLC in bolting garlic occurred at a faster rate compared to the other two garlic clones. Then the relative expression of the AsSOC1 was increased in the meristem during vegetative to reproductive transition phase (12 weeks after planting). The highest AsSOC1 expression was observed in the meristem of bolting garlic at 12 weeks after planting which was 10.98 and 18.41 times more than the meristem of semi-bolting and non-bolting garlic, respectively. AsAP1 was expressed in the meristem of three clones in the vegetative to reproductive phase, but its highest expression was in bolting clone at 12 weeks after planting and was 1.22 and 3.64 times more than the meristem of semi-bolting and non-bolting clone respectively. AsAP2 was just expressed in the meristem of semi-bolting and bolting clones and after reproductive transition. The highest expression of the AsAP2 was observed at 16 weeks after planting in the meristem of semi-bolting and bolting garlic, which was higher in bolting garlic (2.33 times) in comparison to semi–bolting garlic. Decreases in the expression of the AsFLC during vernalization and increases in the expression of the AsSOC1 and AsAP1 during vegetative to reproductive phase in the meristem may lead to scape formation in bolting garlic. However, the higher AsFLC and the lower AsSOC1 and AsAP1 expression in the meristems of non- and semi bolting garlics in comparison to bolting garlic inhibit scape formation. In non-bolting garlic scape aborts and in semi-bolting garlic short and thin scape formed in the middle of leaves. According to the results AsSOC1 and AsAP1 were expressed in the inflorescence of semi-bolting and bolting garlic. AsSOC1 and AsAP1 relative expression in the inflorescence of bolting garlic were 4.28 and 11.25 times more than semi-bolting garlic, respectively. AsAP2 was just expressed in the inflorescence of the bolting clone but wasn’t expressed in the inflorescence of semi-bolting garlic. The differences in the expression pattern of AsSOC1, AsAP1 and AsAP2 in the inflorescence of the garlic clones could be the reason of the abnormal inflorescence in semi-bolting garlic.   Conclusions Finally, it seems that AsFLC is a flowering inhibitor and AsSOC1 and AsAP1 are flowering integrators in bolting garlic. As AsFLC expression decreased after vernalization and AsSOC1 and AsAP2 were expressed highly in the time of vegetative to reproductive transition in the meristem of all clones, and there was difference in the bolting of clones, it is suggested that these genes may influence flower induction but their low relative expression cause incomplete bolting in semi-bolting garlic and forbid bolting in non-bolting garlic.  

Abstract Introduction
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) belongs to the Solanaceae family, which is one of the most widely cultivated and economically important vegetables in the world, which is an excellent source of ascorbic acid and has high antioxidant capacity against oxidative damage caused by free radicals. Ascorbic acid (AsA) is a water-soluble vitamin that plays a key physiological role in scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), and enzyme cofactor. Ascorbic acid is antioxidant and anti-stress agent, and also acts as a signaling molecule in some plant physiological processes and defense mechanisms. Positive roles of such antioxidants in scavenging or chelating the free radicals and activating the natural resistance against different biotic and abiotic stresses have been reported in several fruit trees. Calcium has a vital role for normal growth and development of plants due to an important role in balancing membrane structures, increasing nutrient uptakes and activates of metabolic processes. Calcium plays a vital role in maintains cell wall stability, integrity and determining the fruit quality. To our knowledge, however, little information is available regarding the interaction effect of ascorbic acid and calcium chloride on tomato. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the foliar application of ascorbic acid and calcium chloride on quality and antioxidant capacity of tomato fruit.
 
Materials and Methods
To study the effect of foliar application of calcium chloride (Ca) and Ascorbic acid (AsA) on growth, yield and fruit quality of tomato, the field experiment was carried out from June to September 2021 at Research farm of faculty of Agriculture, at the University of Zanjan, Iran. Each treatment was carried out with three replicates. Different concentrations of Ca (0, 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 %) and AsA (0, 100, 200 and 300 mg.l^-1) were sprayed three times (0, 15, 30 days after full bloom). Fruits were harvested at two harvests stage (orange and red color) and transferred to the laboratory on the same day. Flesh firmness was determined with penetrometer (model Mc Cormic FT 32), using an 8 mm penetrating tip. Results were expressed in kg cm-2. The pH values of solutions were monitored with pH meter. TSS was measured in the extract obtained from three fruit of each replicate with a digital refractometer Atago PR-101 (Atago Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) at 20◦C. Total ascorbic acid content was expressed as mg per 100 g of juice. Antioxidant activity was measured using the free radical scavenging activity (DPPH) and calculated according to the following formula: RSA%= 100(Ac-As)/Ac. Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS software package v. 20.0 for Windows, and means comparison were separated by Duncan’s multiple range tests at p< 0.05.
 
Results and Discussion
The results showed that fruit harvested at red color stage had higher vitamin C, total soluble solid (TSS), total phenol, flavonoids contents and antioxidant capacity compared to fruit harvested at orange color stage. Foliar application of AsA and Ca had significantly improved tomato fruit quality. The highest value of TSS (4.9 °B), vitamin C (46.1 mg.100 ml^-1), total phenol and flavonoids contents and antioxidant capacity (36%) was achieved with application of 300 mg.l^-1 AsA and 0.9% Ca in fruit harvested at red color harvest time. The lowest value of pH and highest TA was observed in red color fruit treated with 300 mg.l^-1 AsA and all Ca levels. Ca had significant effect on fruit firmness, which the highest fruit firmness was obtained from 0.9% Ca. The fresh tomato is an important source of ascorbic acid for human consumption. AsA significantly increased the amount of vitamin C in the plum and sweet pepper fruits. Increasing vitamin C content in fruits after treatment with Ca could be related to inhibiting action of calcium on the activities of ascorbic acid oxidase that use ascorbate as a substrate. The results indicated that treatment of Ca produced fruits with higher firmness compared to control and other treatments. Firmness and resistance to softening can be increased by the addition of Ca, due to interaction of calcium with pectate acid in the cell wall to form calcium pectate and retarding polygalacturonase activity. Differences in the percentage of TSS content at the time of harvest indicated the AsA and Ca effects on carbohydrate accumulation in fruits, which had different potential on respiration rates and consequently storability of plants. The antioxidant activity has positive correlation with total phenolic content, flavonoids and content of ascorbic acid.
 
Conclusions
The results of our research indicated that per-harvest foliar application of AsA and Ca improved fruit quality attributes including vitamin C, fruit firmness, TSS and antioxidant activity. These results suggest that AsA and Ca treatments, especially AsA 300 mg.l^-1 and Ca 0.9%, may be proposed to improve fruit quality.

Abstract Introduction Urban agriculture, as one of the basic features of urban planning, helps to increase the quality of urban life due to its cultural, economic and social benefits. However, pollution with heavy metals in cities causes the accumulation of these metals in different parts of planted plants and also the risk of consuming them for food in urban green spaces.   Materials and Methods This study was conducted to assess the amount of heavy metal absorption and its effect on some biochemical and physiological properties of peppermint plant (Mentha piperita L.), in Mashhad city in 2021.The experiment was carried out as a factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications. The first factor (location) were phase 4 Park (with high degree of contamination) and Nasim Park (with low degree of contamination). The second factor was the times of harvest (June15, July15 and August 15). At the time of every harvest fully developed leaves were collected to evaluate the traits.   Results and Discussion The results of analysis of variance indicated that the effect of location was significant on all traits except for the yield of essential oil. Also, the effect of harvest time was significant on all traits except for peroxidase activity and the yield of essential oil. However, the interaction of location and harvest was significant only on phenol, flavonoid, proline, cadmium and lead concentration. The results indicated that the ascorbate peroxidase, catalase and peroxidase activities were higher in phase 4 Park. Moreover, the highest activities of ascorbate peroxidase, catalase and peroxidase were recorded in phase 4 + first harvest. Heavy metals cause the production of reactive free radicals and also increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes. However, the chlorophyll a, b, carotenoid and total chlorophyll contents were higher in Nasim. Thus, the highest contents of Chl_a, Chl_b, Chl_total and carotenoid were observed in Nasim + first harvest. The higher amount of chlorophyll and carotenoids in the first harvest is due to the optimal growth conditions such as day length and sunlight and ambient temperature. In addition, total phenol, flavonoid, proline, Cd and Pb elements indicated a reducing trend in phase 4 compared to Nasim Park in different harvest times, but the amount of these traits were higher in the first harvest than in the subsequent harvests. Increased amount of total phenol in the first harvest can be related to the high air temperature at the first harvest which caused stressful conditions in this stage. Proline production also increases under heavy metal stress to help protect the plant against toxicity. However, the percentage of essential oil showed an increasing trend with enhanced absorption of Pb and Cd in phase 4 compared to Nasim Park. The higher percentage of essential oil in phase 4 may be attributed to reduced leaf growth due to the higher presence of heavy metals in that area.   Conclusions Overall, while the concentration of Pb exceeded the global standard level in both parks, contamination with Cd and Pb (especially Pb) was greater in phase 4 than in Nasim Park, contributing to reduced growth traits in peppermint plants. Regarding harvest times, the first harvest exhibited better growth characteristics and higher absorption of heavy metals due to the plant's greater vigor. In contrast, the third harvest showed lower growth characteristics and weaker absorption of Pb and Cd, likely due to the energy expended for regrowth.

Abstract Introduction Salinity in water and soil stands as a crucial environmental factor that significantly hampers global agricultural production. Over recent decades, the escalating demand for irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions has intensified this issue, making it a major agricultural challenge. Salinity stress, characterized by reduced water absorption, heightened salt uptake (especially sodium, chlorine, and boron), and the generation of reactive oxygen species, induces oxidative stress in plants, severely impacting their growth and overall performance. To enhance plant tolerance to salinity stress, elicitors are employed as a short-term and viable solution to mitigate the adverse effects of stress. Copper, serving as a cofactor and essential element for numerous enzymes involved in photosynthesis and respiration processes, plays a crucial role in sustaining natural plant growth and metabolism. Copper ions function as cofactors in enzymes like superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn SOD) and polyphenol oxidase, contributing to the removal of reactive oxygen species. However, the absence of this element in plants cultivated in alkaline and saline soils of arid and semi-arid regions can lead to nutritional disorders. In this context, copper nanoparticles emerge as a suitable alternative to chemical fertilizers due to their rapid and efficient effects. Their use not only mitigates the negative consequences of excessive fertilizer application but also decreases the frequency of applications. The Persian leek (Allium ampeloprasum subsp. Persicum) is a valuable edible-medicinal plant native to Iran, belonging to the Amaryllidaceae family. It holds significance in Iran as a key leafy vegetable, valued for its freshness and high processing potential among horticultural plants. Given the nutritional and medicinal importance of Persian leek and the prevalence of salinity stress, this study aims to explore the impact of copper nanoparticle spray in modifying the effects of salinity stress on the morphophysiological and biochemical characteristics of Persian leek.   Materials and Methods A factorial experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design with three replications in the research greenhouses of Lorestan University's Faculty of Agriculture. The experimental conditions included daytime temperatures ranging from 20 to 28 °C, nighttime temperatures from 15 to 20 °C, relative humidity set at 60-70%, and a light intensity of 400-500 µmol.m^-2.s^-1. The first factor involved foliar spraying of copper nanoparticles at control levels (zero), 150, and 300 mg.l^-1, while the second factor comprised salinity stress at control levels (zero), 50, 100, and 150 mM sodium chloride. F1 seeds were obtained from Pakan Bazr Company and planted in 1.5-liter pots, with each pot containing three plants. The copper nanoparticles were applied through foliar spraying twice on the shoot parts at the four-leaf and six-leaf stages. Salinity stress was introduced one week after the foliar application, implemented through irrigation once every three days at a level corresponding to 90% of the field capacity. The soil mixture comprised an equal ratio of agricultural soil, cow manure, and sand, maintaining a clay-sand loam texture. Following three months of applying salt stress, a comprehensive assessment of morphophysiological characteristics was carried out. This included the measurement of plant height, stem and bulb diameter, leaf count, fresh and dry weights of stem, root leaf, root volume and length, shoot/root ratio, dry matter (%), stress tolerance index, relative water content (RWC), electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde content, photosynthetic pigments, chlorophyll stability index, as well as the activity of peroxidase and ascorbate peroxidase.   Results and Discussion The results indicated that salinity stress had a detrimental impact on various aspects of plant growth, including a decrease in plant height, stem and bulb diameter, leaf number, and the fresh and dry weights of the stem, bulb, and root. Additionally, there was a reduction in root volume and length, along with decreased levels of photosynthetic pigments. The percentage of electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde content, and the activity of antioxidant enzymes, namely peroxidase and ascorbate peroxidase, also increased, highlighting the adverse effects of salinity stress on plant development. The decline in plant growth can be attributed to multiple factors, including diminished cell division, ionic imbalance, reduced water absorption, impaired uptake of essential elements, and the impact of toxic ions, particularly sodium and chlorine. Other contributing factors include impaired absorption, regeneration, and metabolism of nitrogen and protein, as well as stomatal closure, collectively resulting in reduced photosynthetic efficiency. Salinity stress further leads to a reduction in soil water potential and an increase in the osmotic pressure of the soil solution. Consequently, the plant requires more energy to absorb water from the soil, leading to increased respiration and alterations in the hormonal balance of plant tissues, ultimately causing a decrease in growth and negative effects on the plant. The application of copper nanoparticles at both concentrations demonstrated positive effects on various growth components, including plant height, stem and bulb diameter, leaf count, and the fresh and dry weights of the stem, bulb, and root, as well as increased root volume and length. Additionally, the use of copper nanoparticles resulted in a decrease in the percentage of electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde content, coupled with an increase in the concentration of photosynthetic pigments and the activity of antioxidant enzymes, including peroxidase and ascorbate peroxidase. Notably, the concentration of 150 mg.liter^-1 exhibited a more pronounced effect in enhancing plant growth, with a diminishing impact observed at higher concentrations. Copper \nanoparticles improve plant growth under stress conditions by influencing the content of cellular antioxidants and modulating the hormonal balance of plant tissues.   Conclusions The findings of this study indicated that increased salinity stress led to higher electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde content, along with a reduction in RWC and photosynthetic pigments. These changes caused a decline in the morpho-physiological characteristics of Persian leek. However, salinity stress also increased the activity of peroxidase and ascorbate peroxidase enzymes. Foliar application of copper nanoparticles under these conditions had beneficial effects on the plants. Specifically, at a concentration of 150 mg.liter^-1, the negative effects of salinity stress on the morpho-physiological indices of Persian leek were alleviated. This improvement was due to an increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes, RWC, and the concentration of photosynthetic pigments.

Abstract Introduction Considering the sensitivity of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.) to viruses, the production of virus-free plants through in vitro cultivation and their propagation leads to a reduction in costs and an increase in yield. One of the effective methods of reducing plant diseases and producing disease-free microtubers is the use of in-vitro production methods. Considering the role and importance of macro elements and micro elements in the growth of microtubers, it is possible to change the composition of MS culture medium by changing the concentration of salts of macro elements and micro elements without disturbing the balance of elements. This experiment aims to investigate the effect of different concentrations of macro elements (2 Mac, Mac, ½ Mac) and micro elements (2 Mic, Mic, ½ Mic) of MS culture medium in combination with two concentrations of sucrose (80 and 160 g.l^-1) was performed on in vitro micronodulation of Agria potato.   Materials and Methods This experiment aimed to investigate the effects of different concentrations of macroelements (2 Mac, Mac, ½ Mac) and microelements (2 Mic, Mic, ½ Mic) in the MS culture medium, combined with two sucrose concentrations (80 and 160 g.l^-1), on in vitro microtuberization of Agria potato. The study was conducted as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replications in the plant tissue culture laboratory of the Department of Horticultural Sciences at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz. Lateral buds obtained from in-vitro shoots were used as explants and were cultured under sterile conditions on different culture mediums for the purpose of microtuberation, and the cultures were kept in continuous darkness and at a temperature of 18±2°C were kept in the growth room. During one month, Microtuber initiation rate and after two months, microtuber formation characteristics were measured.   Results and Discussion The results of the analysis of variance showed that the effect of the concentration of micro elements and the interaction effects of micro elements with different concentrations of sucrose and macro elements were significant only in the case of two traits, the percentage and the speed of microtuber initiation, while all microtuber traits productivity was significantly affected by the interaction of micro elements and macro elements. In all culture mediums with 8% sucrose, the initiation percentage of microtubers was 100% and the initiation rate was also maximum. However, the highest percentage of microtuber formation, weight, length, diameter and number of buds on microtuber was obtained in 2Mac culture medium with 16% sucrose. The results showed that the microtuber that had more weight and size had a higher percentage of dormancy and the buds on the microtuber were not able to germinate and produce microtuber during the stages of microtuber formation.   Conclusions For all traits related to microtubers, except for the percentage and speed of microtuber initiation, the effects of microelements, macroelements, and sucrose were not significant. This indicates that the three factors investigated do not independently enhance microtuber formation in the Agria variety. Regarding micronodulation traits, the interaction effect of low-consumption elements with the other two factors was also not significant, suggesting that the concentration of low-consumption elements is not critical for micronodulation in the Agria variety. In all culture media with 8% sucrose, the initiation percentage of microtubers reached 100%, and the initiation speed was at its maximum. However, when the concentration of macroelements was doubled and 16% sucrose was used, both the initiation percentage and speed of microgland formation in the Agria variety showed a significant decrease. The percentage of microtuber formation, weight, length, diameter and number of buds on the microtuber in Agria cultivar were significantly affected by the mutual effect of the concentration of macro elements and sucrose, and the 2 Mac culture medium has 16% sucrose in the first priority and the ½ culture medium Mac with 8 % sucrose in the second priority was better than the other treatments in terms of the investigated traits. In this research, it was found that the produced microglands with greater weight and size had a higher percentage of dormancy and during the stages of microglandogenesis, the buds on the microtubers were not able to germinate and produce microtubers.

Abstract Introduction
 Over time, water deficit and environmental pollution by traditional agriculture that forces the producer to contribute to competitive and sustainable agriculture. Leafy vegetables are beneficial to human health, therefore, to adapt an eco-friendly approach in some vegetables, the partial substitution (25–50%) of mineral NPK by biofertilizers in lettuce improves the yield and agronomic features and produces healthy plants for human nutrition as well. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) from Asteraceae family is considered as one of the most popular salad vegetables as a cool season crop. PGPB (Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria) are rhizosphere bacteria that improve plant growth through a broad range of processes, i.e., phosphate solubilization, biological nitrogen fixation, siderophore manufacturing, phytohormone manufacturing, antifungal activity, systemic resistance induction and plant-microbe symbiosis promotion. The promoting of growth and yield of horticultural crops such as cucumber, potato, tomato and spinach by plant growth promoting bacteria inoculation at nutrient solutions under soilless systems have also been reported.
 
Material and Methods
 In order to study the effect of growth-promoting bacteria on the yield, iron concentration and phenolic compounds of lettuce (Lactuca sativa cv. New Red Fire) under floating systems, the experiment was carried out in a completely randomized design with three replications in the Research greenhouse of University of Zanjan, during 2020. Experiment treatments consisted of five levels of PGPB (Pseudomonas vancouverensis, Pseudomonas koreensis, Pantoea agglomerans, Pseudomonas putida, and one level of combined bacteria (Pantoea agglomerans+ Pseudomonas koreensis + Pseudomonas putida+ Pseudomonas vancouverensis)) and control plant (without bacteria treated). Application of bacteria was done in two stages, one step before cultivation as seed inoculation and the next step as root inoculation. Lettuce plants grown in hydroculture condition with Hoagland nutrient solution. Growth conditions were environmentally controlled at a relative humidity of 60/70 % day/night and temperature was maintained between 20 and 17 °C. At 40 days after transplanting date, the lettuce head were harvested. The freshly harvested lettuce head were immediately weighed separately of each plant for fresh weight determination. Leaf samples were dried at 72 °C for 48 h in a drying oven and kept for further investigations. Also, leaf number per plant, chlorophyll and carotenoids contents, Fe concentration, total phenol, total flavonoids and anthocyanin contents were measured.
 
 
Results
The obtained results in the current study indicated that the application of PGPB on lettuce caused significant increase in growth, photosynthetic pigments and iron concentration. The maximum growth rate and photosynthetic pigments content was observed in combined four bacteria treatment, so that, an increase of 388.2% chlorophyll a, 439.8% chlorophyll b, 398.3% total chlorophyll, 246.3% carotenoids contents, 42.6% plant fresh weight and 22.2% number of leaves was obtained compared to control plants. Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) can enhance growth and development of plants. PGPB have direct and indirect influences on plant growth process. The immediate promotion of growth involves either supplying the plant with a compound produced by the bacteria, i.e., phytohormones, or promoting certain nutrient uptake from the setting. Whereas, the indirect plant growth promotion happens when PGPB decreases or prevents the deleterious impacts of one or more phytopathogenic species. Plants inoculated with PGPB showed higher leaf iron concentration compared to control plant. Thus inoculation with combined four bacteria induced a 26.2 % increase of lettuce leaves iron concentration. The obtained results in the current study revealed that the inoculation with PGPB significant decreased the total phenol, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents. The maximum content of phenol (483 µg g^-1FW), flavonoid (188.1 µg g^-1FW) and anthocyanin (27.5 µmol g^-1FW) were observed in control plants compared to treated plants.
 
Conclusion
 According to the results of this research, the use of PGPB in the hydroculture system, on the one hand, led to a significant increase in iron absorption, the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments, and subsequently promote growth and increases lettuce yield. On the other hand, due to facilitating the growth conditions and increasing the absorption of nutrients for the host plants as a result of inoculation with PGPB, led to a decreases of phenolic compounds including total phenol, total flavonoid and anthocyanin contents.