Medicinal Plants
Atefeh Bakherad; majid azizi
Abstract
Introduction: the capacity to sense and respond to light is widespread in animals, plants, fungi and bacteria. In nature, light is one of most crucial environmental signals for developmental and physiological processes in various organisms, including filamentous fungi. The ability to sense light is crucial ...
Read More
Introduction: the capacity to sense and respond to light is widespread in animals, plants, fungi and bacteria. In nature, light is one of most crucial environmental signals for developmental and physiological processes in various organisms, including filamentous fungi. The ability to sense light is crucial for many organisms determining timing and modality of development and orienting primary and secondary metabolic processes. Due to the increased number of sequenced fungal genomes, numerous genes encoding proteins involved in light sensing and downstream gene regulation have been identified. This expedited understanding the mechanisms by which the fungus activates physiological and morphological reactions in response to light. One of the One of these fungi is the Monascus purpureus. the genus Monascus was classified in the family Monascaceae, but based on recent genome sequencing, it seems that the genus is more closely associated with the genus Aspergillus, and thus should be reclassified in the Aspergillaceae family. The fungus Monascus is the most famous for production of pigments and monacolins; however, it can also form other metabolites – citrinin, dimerumic acid, and GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid). Formation of particular metabolites depends on the strain and cultivation conditions. Monascus pigments (MPs) as natural food colorants have been widely utilized in food industries in the world, especially in China and Japan. Moreover, MPs possess a range of biological activities, such as anti-mutagenic and anticancer properties, antimicrobial activities, potential anti-obesity activities, and so on. So, in the past two decades, more and more attention has been paid to MPs. In this study, the effect of different LED light spectra on growth and secondary metabolites of Monascus purpureus is studied.Material and methods: In this study, in order to investigate the effect of light quality on growth rate, biomass and pigment production in Monascus purpureus, this fungus was cultivated under dark conditions and three light, white, red and blue LEDs and harvested in three times (seventh, tenth and fourteenth days) To measure the amount of pigment in the liquid medium. To measure the radial growth rate and biomass weight, a solid medium was used. Also, the absorbance of the samples was measured in 410, 470, and 510 nm wavelengths for yellow, orange and red pigments,respectively, using a spectrophotometric device.Results: The results of this study shows that there is a significant correlation between pigment and optical spectra, so that the highest amount of pigment (yellow, orange, red) was obtained in terms of darkness, with values of 0.344, 0.291, 0.249, respectively. There was no significant difference between harvest time and pigment content except for red color on day 10 in dark conditions, with a value of 0.249. The smallest amount of pigment is also related to the red pigment produced on the 14th day in the blue light spectrum with an absorption of 0.009. Also, the highest radial growth rate was observed in the dark condition with a mean growth of 5.12 mm / day and the lowest radial growth was related to the cultivation of monascus under the blue light spectrum with an average growth of 2.61 mm / day. However, there was no significant difference between biomass and light in solid media. The highest amount of biomass in the liquid medium was 0.126 g in 40 ml of culture medium with monascus culture in dark conditions on day 14 and the lowest amount of biomass was also obtained with 0.068 g in 40 ml of culture medium in white light on the seventh day.Concolusion: The results showed that, in addition to factors such as carbon source, nitrogen source, PH, temperature, minerals, partial pressure of oxygen, other microorganisms, light is also an important environmental factor for development and physiological processes in Monascus purpureus. According to this study, the growth of this fungus in the dark causes increased cell growth, the amount of biomass and pigment, these results indicate that the lack of light stimulates the growth and production of secondary metabolites in this fungus. Although there was no significant difference between pigment value and harvest time, except for the red pigment, but due to the slight difference in pigmentation on the 10th day of cultivation in dark conditions, it can be deduced that the best conditions for producing the highest amount of pigment, cultivation of Monascus fungus under conditions The darkness and harvest of this mushroom is on the tenth day of cultivation. Also, among pigments produced by this fungus, the amount of yellow pigment production in different light conditions is higher than other pigments. Chen, M. H. & Johns, M. R. (1993) shows that the solid-state yielded greater amount of pigment9,8 compared to submerged fermentation. This phenomenon had been attributed to the pigment because of low solubility in the fermentation medium and pigment accumulation within the mycelium in submerged culture10. In contrast, in solid-state fermentation, the Monascus sp penetrated into solid substrate and pigment released onto the surface. Solid state not only issued nutrient, but also acted as anchorage for cells, this may have bestowed to the celebrated eminent productivity. Solid state environment is similar to environment of fungi which was normally excited. Therefore, it is suggested that in subsequent studies, to achieve maximum pigment, a solid culture medium should be used.
Medicinal Plants
Ghasem Esmaeili; hossein arouiee; Jamil Vaezi
Abstract
Introduction: The genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae) is one of the most interesting plant genera with a variety of annual, biennial, perennial and shrub forms. According to recent reports, there are 61 species of Salvia genus in Iran, among which 18 species are endemic. The use of Salvia species dates back ...
Read More
Introduction: The genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae) is one of the most interesting plant genera with a variety of annual, biennial, perennial and shrub forms. According to recent reports, there are 61 species of Salvia genus in Iran, among which 18 species are endemic. The use of Salvia species dates back to ancient times, and they are now being used for different purposes such as antimicrobial, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, tonic, carminative, digestive, Alzheimer’s disease, antispasmodic as well as for traditional medicines and food industries. Compared to crop plants, the breeding programs of medicinal plants are still in nascent stages due to high biological and biochemical variations. Since breeding programs, especially in medicinal plants, are expensive, suitable mating can help reduce the costs of breeding programs. Understanding the flowering biology, reproductive systems and pollination mechanism is essential to management and protection of ecosystems and mating programs. Despite the high diversity of Salvia genus in Iran, there is a paucity of studies on reproductive biology.Materials and methods: seeds of seven Salvia species including S. virgata (with four accessions), S. frigida, S. nemorosa, S. atropatana, S. macrosiphon, S. sclarea, and S. syriaca were collected from different geographical regions. The seeds were treated by various methods such as washing, cold treatment (stratification), scarification (sand and sulfuric acid), Gibberellic acid (GA3) and KNO3 to enhance germination. The seedlings were produced at the greenhouse and after growing as high as 15 cm or reaching the10-leaf stage, the seedlings were transferred to the farm. Plants phenology and flowering duration were recorded in the second year. Furthermore, some flower characteristics and pollinator were monitored. The Various pollination treatments were designed to investigate the breeding system of Salvia species including open pollination, spontaneous autogamy, geitonogamy, xenogamy, apomixis, and control. The self-incompatibility index (ISI) was calculated for each species in different pollination treatment.Results and discussion: The germination study exhibited that washing seeds for 24 h and applying 250 ppm GA3 exerted the highest effect on seed germination. The seedlings in early growth stages required medium to high porosity (high permeability to water and air) like natural habitat, but they were sensitive to dry and high EC at these stages. The phenology studies were shown Salvia virgata (all accessions) and S. nemorosa flowered three months after cultivation and other species flowered in the second year. The results showed that all species had long flowering periods ranging from 15 (S. atropatana) to 41 days (S. virgata). Increased flowering period led to the enhancement of flower over-lapping and the sharing of the pollen among different plants or species. Two species including S. atropatana and S. syriaca had heterostyly flowers (long-styled morph). The staminal-lever-mechanism was observed in all species. The results of manual pollination indicated that open pollination provided the best treatment with the highest average of seed set (73.63%) in all species. Salvia virgata (A1) with a seed set of 90.3% was the best species, and S. syriaca with a seed set of 51.5% demonstrated the poorest performance in open pollination system. The seed set in the xenogamy treatment of different species and accessions was in the range of 10.2 (S. syriaca) to 32.5% (S. frigida). It was observed that seed set among different species in geitonogamy and spontaneous autogamy varied widely from 2.60 - 17.30% and 2.98 - 12.18%, respectively. In treatments with a wide variety of pollen sources, the fruit set was higher, indicating that the pollen limitation triggered low seed set.Conclusion: Salvia species in the present study have a high potential for cultivation as medicinal and ornamental due to suitable adaptability and long flowering period. Salvia species were relatively self-incompatible that intention to the out-crossing and breeders can use in breeding programs as a valuable characteristic. The self-incompatible and specific structure in flower and pollination are the reasons for the diversity of this taxa.
Medicinal Plants
ELAHE GHAFOOREAN HOZORI ISFAHAN
Abstract
IntroductionMedicinal plant are very importnat in health care for today societies and the need for it is increasing. Greenhouse production of transplants face different limitations including light. LED lights are introduced for solving the problem. An LED lamp or LED light bulb is ...
Read More
IntroductionMedicinal plant are very importnat in health care for today societies and the need for it is increasing. Greenhouse production of transplants face different limitations including light. LED lights are introduced for solving the problem. An LED lamp or LED light bulb is an electric light for use in light fixtures that produces light using one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LED lamps have a lifespan many times longer than equivalent incandescent lamps, and are significantly more efficient than most fluorescent lamps. Experiments revealed surprising performance and production of vegetables and ornamental plants under LED light sources. Many plant species have been assessed in greenhouse trials to make sure that the quality of biomass and biochemical ingredients of such plants is at least comparable with those grown in field conditions. Plant performance of mint, basil, lentil, lettuce, cabbage, parsley and carrot was measured by assessing both the health and vigor of the plants and the success of the LEDs in promoting growth. Also noticed was profuse flowering of select ornamentals including primula, marigold and stock.Materials and Methods In order to investigate the effect of supplementary LED light on the growth parameters and the amount of active ingredient in Hypericum perforatum L. “Topaz” cultivar, a research was conducted in two independent experiments. The research was set up in a completely randomized design with three replications. The first experiment experienced the extended of day length with 4 hours at the end of the day (started from sunrise to sunset). LED treatments were started at 10 cm height of the transplants. The second experiment examined the light types. In this order the considered treatments consisted of four levels of red light (L1), blue light (L2), combination of 67% red light and 33% blue light (L3), white (L4), 100% natural light(L5), with an intensity equal to (200 fc). Measurement of traits in the first experiment was carried out at flowering stage. Aerial part fresh and dry weights, number of black nodes, days to flowering, leaf area, total chlorophyll, antioxidant activity, total phenol, plant height and hypericine percentage were determined within both experiments.Results and Discussion The results showed that the simple effect of supplementary combination red and blue light (started from sunrise to sunset) on growth, morphological, physiological and biochemical traits was significant at 1% probability level. The highest plant dry weight was detected in L3 in the first and second harvests respectively (8.63 g, 66.29 g). Also, the highest percentage of Hypericine in the first harvest was obtained for L3 (0.17%). Measurement of the traits in the second experiment was carried out at the seedling stage. Results showed that the simple effect of supplementary combination light (sun exposure and day length increased for 4 hours) had a significant effect (p≤0.01) on growth rate, physiological, morphological and biochemical properties. So that the lowest number of days to flowering (early flowering) was obtained from L3 treatment (101 day), and the highest percentage of Hypericin was related to L3 treatment (0.156%). Black node numbers and total phenol content were increased by 27 and 53 % with supplementary light treatments respectively. Antioxidant activity was also raised and enhanced from 33 % to 75 % with LED light application. Plant height and total chlorophyll content were enhanced from 13 to 23 cm and 12 to 22 mg/g FW as well. Regarding studied traits and the obtained results of the both experiments, the positive effect of applying LED light, red and blue on the growth and biochemical properties, especially the Hypericine percentage and yield of St. John’s wort is quite evident.Different reactions were observed in response to supplementary light treatments for St. John’s wort. Most of the enhancements observed were mainly due to optimized photosynthesis activities and more metabolic production processes.Conclusions Regarding studied traits and the obtained results of the both experiments, the positive effect of applying LED light, red and blue on the growth and biochemical properties, especially the Hypericine percentage and yield of St. John’s wort is quite evident. It seems that a combination of red and blue light could be suggested for solving the light limitations and increasing the medicinal plant production for future.Keywords: Supplementry light, light quality, Hypericum perforatum, Hypericine
Medicinal Plants
mahdieh kheirabadi; M. Azizi
Abstract
Introduction: The allelopathic potential of saffron in three experiments were investigated.Materials and Methods: In this study, we examined the aqueous and aqueous methanol extract of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), 9-year-saffron cultivated soils and non-saffron cultivated soils. Activated carbon and ...
Read More
Introduction: The allelopathic potential of saffron in three experiments were investigated.Materials and Methods: In this study, we examined the aqueous and aqueous methanol extract of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), 9-year-saffron cultivated soils and non-saffron cultivated soils. Activated carbon and Zeolite were used to ameliorate allelopathy activity.lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) was used as a test plant and the percentage of germination, hypocotyl length, radicle length and their ratio was evaluated This study was carried out in a completely randomized design with four replications in the Laboratory of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in 2018- 2019.Results and Discussion: The results of this study showed that the allelopathic effect of aqueous and methanol extract of the saffron corm was more effective on germination and seedlings growth of lettuce than 9-year-saffron cultivated soils. The use of activated carbon and zeolite adsorbents was effective in improving and mitigating the allelopathy activity and increased the growth of lettuce seedlings.Conclusions: the results of this study indicated that it is possible to inhibit allelopathic activity in saffron fields and this study should be repeated in field conditions in order to recommend a practical solution for this purpose.
Medicinal Plants
Somayeh Sadeghifard; Majid Azizi; Sara Karimi
Abstract
Introduction: Growth regulators play a vital role in developmental stages of plants and their use can be improved the yield of crops. One of the most important compounds that used as growth regulators in recent years is Salicylic acid. The application of salicylic acid in the activation of systemic acquired ...
Read More
Introduction: Growth regulators play a vital role in developmental stages of plants and their use can be improved the yield of crops. One of the most important compounds that used as growth regulators in recent years is Salicylic acid. The application of salicylic acid in the activation of systemic acquired resistance, and metabolite synthesis and antioxidant enzymes has been proved. Also, salicylic acid as a natural compound has potential to prevent ethylene production and its effect. In order to evaluate the effect of salicylic acid in different concentration on yield and oils content of Ziziphora, a split plot experiment with three replications during 2014-2015 in the farm of Agricultural Faculty of Shirvan and Ferdowsi University of Mashhad laboratories was conducted.Material and Methods:This research was conducted during 2014-2015 in field conditions in a split plot design in time,at Shirvan Agricultural Research Station(latitude º40 / 37, longitude º93 / 57 and with a height of 1097 m above sea level) and in labrovatory Department of Horticultural Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Each plot had an area of 4 square meters in furrow planting way which the distance between rows were 50 cm and on rows 15 cm and were carried out on 25 March 2014. IMediately after planting, irrigation was done, and after 20 days which the seeds germinated as well, second irrigation was done. Irrigation and weed controls also be done manually once a week. Salicylic acid (Sigma Aldrich, 99.5%) in the three phases of plant growth (vegetative growth, during vegetative growth and flowering time), at concentrations (0, 10-2, 10-4 and 10-6 M) in three repeats were sprayed. The first spraying (the growth)on 3 April 2014, the second spraying (during growth) on 4 May and the third one (at the time of flowering) was conducted in early June 2014. Plant harvesting was done on 20 July. In order to measure the dry weight of plants, the samples were dried for a week in shade condition. Essential oil content was determined using 30 grams dry sample in 500 ml of water by hydrodistillation using Clevenger for 4. For biochemical characteristics first samples extract were obtained. To prepare extracts, dry samples were milled then one gram of each sample was transferred to the 50 ml Erlen and 10 ml of 80%methanol was added and shaked for 24 hours. After 24 hours the extract was filtered using filter paper then used for measuring phenols, flavonoids and antioxidant activity. Phenol measurment: phenolic content was measured using the Folin reagent. In 5.0 mL of each extract (10 milligrams per ml) 5.2 ml Folin reagent was added. After 5 minutes, 300 ml of a molar solution of sodium carbonate is added and for 30 minutes in a bath that was 40 °C. The sample absorbance at 760 nm was measured by a spectrophotometer against the blank. Gallic acid was used as the standard for calibration curve. Flavonoids measurement: Flavonoid content of the samples were measured using aluminum chloride reagent. In 5.0 ml of methanol extract (10 milligrams per ml), 5.1 ml of methanol, 1.0 ml of 10% aluminum chloride, 1.0 ml of a molar potassium acetate and 8.2 ml of distilled water was added. The mixture kept in dark for 30 minutes and absorbance at a wavelength of 415 nm was read against the blank. Quercetin was used as the standard for calibration curve evaluation. JMP statistical software was used to analyze the data.Results and Discussion: Based on the results application of salicylic acid affect fresh and dry weight, plant height, phenol and flavonoid content significantly ( P
Medicinal Plants
Majid Azizi; sonayye beigi; Zeynab safaei; Meysam Mansouri
Abstract
IntroductionMedicinal plants are economical important plants that are used in traditional medicine and industry as raw or processed materials. Valerian (Valeriana officinalis L.) is one of the important medicinal plants which belong to Valerianaceae family. The valerian rhizome and roots have been considered ...
Read More
IntroductionMedicinal plants are economical important plants that are used in traditional medicine and industry as raw or processed materials. Valerian (Valeriana officinalis L.) is one of the important medicinal plants which belong to Valerianaceae family. The valerian rhizome and roots have been considered as a valuable medicinal plant that essential oil content (between 0.1 to 2 percent) varied according to climatic conditions of production location. Valerian needs a lot of water during the growth period and enough moisture around the roots and rhizome increase root yield. Iran is located in arid and semi-arid region. If the least water requirement of plant does not provide, plant face to drought stress and irreparable damage is imported to the product. Nowadays, the use of superabsorbent polymers is one of the ways to increase irrigation efficiency. They are made of hydrocarbons, can store high water or aqueous solutions in root zone of plants and to reduce negative effects of drought stress. So, improvement of plant growth, increasing of irrigation intervals, reducing water loss and costs of irrigation are due to application of superabsorbent polymers. Generally, water efficiency, dry matter production and root development, are positive reactions to the use of superabsorbent. In this regard, Stockosorb® copolymer is potassium-based nutrients that have a high ability to absorb water and nutrients and high strength polymer maintained the water has been proven. The aims of this investigation were to study the effects of Stockosorb® hydrophilic polymers, on some morphological (root dry weight and yield, leaf area), biochemical (chlorophyll a, b), physiological (electrolyte leakage, leaf relative water content) characteristics and essential oil content and yield of valerian under drought stress.Materials and MethodsThis research was conducted in field (1×1 m2) at Department of Horticultural Science‚ College of Agriculture‚ Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The research was set out in a factorial experiment on the basis of completely randomized block design. The Stockosorb® hydrophilic polymer at four concentrations (0, 100, 200, 300 gr/m2) and two irrigation period (6 and 10 day) with three replications were set as treatments and leaf area, root dry weight and yield, chlorophyll a, b, electrolyte leakage, leaf relative water content and essential oil content and yield were evaluated at the end of the growth period. The seeds of Valeriana officinalis were sown in protected open field for seedling production and the seedling were transplanted to the field at four-leaf stage (12 plant per plot). Stockosorb® mixed with soil, after weighing the polymers based on determined concentration. After seedling establishment, all plots were irrigated with a determined amount and equal of water.Results and DiscussionThe results showed, using Stockosorb® superabsorbent polymer be useful for water supply the plant in water stress condition. Application of this substance on some morphological, biochemical and physiological characteristics and valerian essential oil, was significant at 1% and superior to the control. According to the results obtained, Stockosorb® 300gr/m2 with irrigation period 6 day interval, increased leaf area, root dry yield, leaf relative water content, chlorophyll a and essential oil yield. While, the highest valerian root dry weight and essential oil content were obtained with application of Stockosorb® 200gr/m2 and irrigation period of 6 days interval. The highest electrolyte leakage was related to control and irrigation period 10 days interval and the maximum chlorophyll b was belonged to Stockosorb® 100 gr/m2 with irrigation period 10 days interval.ConclusionSince final goal in cultivation of valerian as other essential oil bearing plants is providing the best conditions for increasing the yield and quantity of essential oil at the same time, according to the results of this study superabsorbent polymer in higher concentrations and less irrigation period, controlled the drought stress and improved all measured characteristics. The highest root dry weight under drought stress was related to more accessible and preservatives water in the root zone and it found by using the middle concentrations (200 gr/m2) super absorbent polymer and irrigation period shorter (6 day). Using of mentioned treatments, according to the middle water stress, leads to increased valerian essential oil. The best root dry yield and essential oil yield, with sufficient amounts of water and better growth conditions were achieved by application of 300 gr/m2 Stockosorb® and irrigation period 6 days interval. In general, superabsorbent polymer was able to increase irrigation period and this was evident in qualitative and quantitative results related to the valerian in the treatment of 300 gr/m2 with irrigation period 10 day and 100 gr/m2 of polymer 6 day irrigation period.
Medicinal Plants
manizhe abdollahpoor; Majid Azizi; Siamak Kalantari; Yusef Ali Saadat
Abstract
Introduction Hypericum perforatum L. is an important medicinal plant that used for depression treatment. In vitro regeneration has been successfully achieved for many Hypericum species from a range of explants sources with different growth regulators. Recent studies have demonstrated that in vitro culture ...
Read More
Introduction Hypericum perforatum L. is an important medicinal plant that used for depression treatment. In vitro regeneration has been successfully achieved for many Hypericum species from a range of explants sources with different growth regulators. Recent studies have demonstrated that in vitro culture is an option for multiplication of different Hypericum species. With consideration this notice that tissue culture can provide an affordable alternative method for propagation with high speed to production of intensive plant material as well as suitable materials for breeding programs of H. perforatum, the objective of this study was to investigate the effects of explant types (leaf and stem), plant growth regulators (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA), Benzyl Adenine (BA) and Kinetin (Kin)), light (dark and weak light), media culture (MS medium and MS medium with B5 vitamins) and poly vinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) on callus induction in H. perforatum at in vitro culture condition. Materials and Methods For preparation of sterile plantlets, the seeds of Iranian H. perforatum (Azadshahr population) were cultured in 1.2 MS growth regulator free-media. For investigation the callus induction of Iranian H. perforatum the leaf and stem explants of in vitro obtained plantlets were used. Explants were cultured in different concentrations of 2,4-D (0.2, 0.5 and 1 mg l-1) with two kinds of cytokines BA and Kin (0.2, 0.5 and 1 mg l-1) as well as 1 mg l-1 NAA. For browning control of calli the effects of light (dark and weak light), media culture (MS medium and MS medium with B5 vitamins) and four concentrations of poly vinyl pyrrolidone (0, 50, 100 and 200 mg l-1) were also surveyed. Results and Discussion Callus cultures could be used for cell suspension initiation, studying of their morphogenetic potential and screening of secondary metabolite profile. In present study the response of two H. perforatum explants (leaf and stem) to different levels and combinations of auxins and cytokinins were tested. The callus induction in both studied explants (leaf and stem) was just observed in supplemented media with plant growth regulators. The calli of leaf explants were showed better growth in dark and the highest callus fresh weight was obtained in 0.25 mg l-1 2,4-D + 1 mg l-1 Kin and 0.5 mg l-1 2.4-D + 1 mg l-1 BA. Of the various concentrations and combination of growth regulators, the minimum response about callus induction was observed in the presence of 1 mg l-1 2, 4-D in combination with 1 mg l-1 NAA. The obtained calli got browning shortly after induction. The investigation of light effect on callus quantity and quality showed that not only light did not affect the callus induction and callus browning but also reduced the callus growth. The highest callus fresh weight was obtained in 100 mg l-1 poly vinyl pyrrolidone in leaf explant. Few species within the genus Hypericum have been used to produce callus. In H. perforatum seedling, different explants such as shoot apical meristem, stem segments and leaves were used for callus induction. In H. erectum callus induction was obtained by culturing seedlings in the presence of Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) and BA under darkness. The combination of cytokinins and auxins did not support callus growth of H. brasiliense and callus of nodal explants was only obtained in the presence of 2,4-D or NAA using either MS or B5 medium. These differences among literatures can be due to different cultivars, culture conditions, explant type and medium composition.Conclusion The plant growth regulators is necessary for callus induction in Iranian H. perforatum and leaf is suitable for this purpose. The light intensity and poly vinyl pyrrolidone did not control the browning of of H. perforatum calli.
Postharvest physiology
Mahroo Sadat Motaghayer; Majid Azizi; Ali Tehranifar
Abstract
Introduction: Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus, Asteraceae) commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, is one of the ten most popular and important commercial cut flowers. Gerbera is a perennial, tropical, herbaceous plant with colorful and attractive flowers that are widely used as a decorative garden plant ...
Read More
Introduction: Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus, Asteraceae) commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, is one of the ten most popular and important commercial cut flowers. Gerbera is a perennial, tropical, herbaceous plant with colorful and attractive flowers that are widely used as a decorative garden plant or cut flowers. The most important problem of the gerbera cut flowers is short vase life. The end of vase life of cut gerbera flowers is often due to bending of the scape. The aim of this study was to screen the effects of nanosilver and salicylic acid as pulse treatment and sucrose and thyme, clove and peppermint essential oils as permanent treatment on vase life and some physiological and biochemical traits of gerbera ‘Rosalin’ cut flowers.Materials and Methods: This study was conducted as a factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with three replications. The first factor was pulse treatments using nanosilver (NS) 5 and 10 mg/L (Nanocid Company, Iran), salicylic acid (SA) 50 and 100 mg/L (Merck Company) and distilled water as control, and the second factor was permanent treatments applying distilled water, sucrose 4% (Merck Company), peppermint (100 mg/L), thyme (100 mg/L) and clove (300 mg/L) essential oils (EO) (Zardband Company, Iran). Pulse treatments were applied for 24 h. Treated stems were then stood into vases containing permanent treatments. Vase solutions were freshly prepared at the beginning of the experiment and not renewed during of the study. The measured traits were: flower vase life, flower water content (WC), relative fresh weight (RFW), water loss (WL), water uptake (WU), total soluble solid (TSS), superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) amount (Biovision Colorimetric Assay Kit, USA). The experiment was conducted in the laboratory at 20-22°C, 40-50% RH, and 15 µmol/m2s light intensity (cool white florescent tubes) under a daily light period of 12 hours. The obtained data were analyzed using MSTAT-C program and mean comparison was done using LSD range test.Results and Discussion: The results showed that NS 10 mg/L with thyme EO 100 mg/L (14.25 days) and NS 10 mg/L followed by peppermint EO 100 mg/L (14 days) had the best effect on longevity and maintaining the water content of gerbera cv. ‘Rosalin’ cut flower, compare to other treatments. Flower WC was high (about 90%) except in 4% sucrose permanent treatment flowers which had negative effect and decreased more rapidly during the vase life period. Despite of antimicrobial preservative application, RFW, WU, WL and TSS generally had a decreasing trend during the experiment. However, it was observed that flowers treated by NS 10 mg/L (0.86 g/g) and thyme (0.77 g/g) and peppermint (0.72 g/g) EOs had the most RFW on the eighth day of experiment, but 4% sucrose (0.59 g/g) permanent treatment reduced RFW during cut flower vase life. The highest WU was respectively observed in SA 100 mg/L (67.28 g), NS 5 (61.31 g) and 10 mg/L (60.35 g) on the second day. According to the results of this research, pulsing by NS 5 and 10 mg/L and SA 100 mg/L resulted in the the most WL on day two (64.24, 57.85 and 64.95 g respectively). TSS of the cut flowers decreased with time, however reduction rates were delayed in SA and NS treated flowers. On the eighth day of experiment, long-term treatment showed the most effect on TSS amount. Flowers treated by NS 10 mg/L followed by 4% sucrose and peppermint EO treatment had the highest TSS amount, respectively 3.50 and 3.17 Bx. As the time passed, the activities of SOD enzyme increased, however, treated flowers showed significantly higher SOD activity compared to the control. Especially NS 10 mg/L pulse treatment, followed by thyme and peppermint EOs, indicated by the highest amounts (241.43% and 233.94%) of SOD activity on seveth day of the experiment. During the experiment, MDA increased in the flowers, so that the highest amount of MDA was detected in control (67.30%) on the seventh day and the lowest was produced in NS 10 mg/L treated flowers followed by thyme (14.88%) and peppermint (19.44%) EOs. Due to the fact that these treatments had the best effects on flower vase life, these results are logical.Conclusions: Based on the results of this study, new antimicrobial agents such as NS, thyme and peppermint EOs had a positive effect on flower vase life, WC, RFW and WU and reduced the rate of WL and TSS reduction in flowers. It might be due to this fact that these are very effective antimicrobial agents, inhibited the microbial growth and prevented bacterial plugging in conducting tissues. NS particles enter to cell, tissue and organs, so they can inhibit the respiration and electron transfer system and material transfer in microbial cell membrane. The application of natural phenolic compound like EOs reduced the accumulation of MDA and enhanced SOD enzyme activity. Therefore, due to the undesirable results of chemical preservative on human and environmental health, EOs can be very good substitutes for preserving cut flowers postharvest life.
Medicinal Plants
Negin Afsharzadeh; m azizi; Leila Samiei
Abstract
Introduction Hypericum perforatum is a perennial plant that has been used in traditional medicine. H. perforatum have several types of medicinal compounds including antiviral compounds, antioxidants, flavonoides and also has valuable compounds such as Hypericin, Hyperforin, Pseudo-hypericin and xanthones ...
Read More
Introduction Hypericum perforatum is a perennial plant that has been used in traditional medicine. H. perforatum have several types of medicinal compounds including antiviral compounds, antioxidants, flavonoides and also has valuable compounds such as Hypericin, Hyperforin, Pseudo-hypericin and xanthones that have effect on human physiology. Aerial parts of H. perforatum are dotted with dark glands that appear as black or red nodules. Black glands were known as localization of secondary metabolites. as a consequence of the commercial potential of this species attempts have been at plant improvement by application of in vitro culture methods. Among seedling explants of H. perforatum, it appears that roots are superior for shoot regeneration. It is generally accepted that explants source is an important factor r successful establishment of tissue culture in many cases. Production of secondary metabolites via plant cell and tissue culture yields various advantage es, including standardization and quality. These criteria are also valid for the main economically important chemical in st. John’s wort, namely hypericin, pseudo hypericin and hyperforin. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectof some tissue cultures on plant Callogenesis, regeneration and also, study the effect of cytokinin and auxin on rooting rate and shoot multiplication. Materials and Methods: This research included two experiments; first experiment plan was a completely randomized in the form of a factorial. Second experiment plan was completely ranom.first part of experiment : this part were conducted with two explants, leaf and shoot ,maintained in light and dark condition. Shoot explants were derived from sterile seedlings that was obtained from seeds were cultured on MS medium. Seeds were decontaminated by NaClO 20% (V/V) for 20 min and were washed with sterile deionized water. Leaf explants were derived from seedlings in the in vivo condition and decontaminated by NaClO 20% (V/V) for 20 min then washed with sterile deionized water. Both of explants cultured on MS media supplemented with BA(3 and 4 mg/l) and 2,4-D (0, 1 and 2.5 mg/l). Callogenesis and regeneration was measured after 4 weeks.Second part of experiment: shoot of indirect regeneration for rooting study, were cultured on ½ MS media supplemented with BA (0 and 5/0 mg/l) and IBA (0 and 1 mg/l). Proliferation, shoot and root length were measured after 4 and 8 weeks.Results and Discussion:Effects of the factors on first part of experiment; calluses of shoot and leaf explants were induced after 4 weeks. Shoot explants Medium supplemented with 4 mg/l BA and 2.5 mg/l 2, 4-D showed 95% Callogenesis. Leaf explants Medium supplemented with 3 mg/l BA and 2.5 mg/l 2, 4-D showed 98% Callogenesis. Shoot explants Medium supplemented with BA 3 mg/l showed 62% regeneration and leaf explants Medium supplemented with BA 4 mg/l showed 8% regeneration.For second part of experiments; root induction on half strength medium without hormone and medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l BA and 1 mg/l IBA had highest rooting frequencies. Average of root length was registered 5.25 cm. half strength medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l BA had 100% and also, medium with 0.5 mg/l BA and 1 mg/l IBA had 86% shoot multiplication and were not appeared any roots. Average Shoot length on medium without hormone and medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l BA and 1 mg/l IBA was registered 6.24 cm and in media with 0.5 mg/l BA and 1 mg/l IBA was registered 1.8 cm. based on result of this experiments, the concentration levels of the two hormone BA and 2, 4-D in the induction of calli formation and regeneration of the H. perforatum have been effective. In the second experiment, hormone BA, in the absence of IBA did not cause rooting and increased the degree of shoots and ultimately proliferation was effective. Also, in treatment with 0.5 mg/l BA and 1 mg/l IBA, although the concentration of cytokinin was less than auxin, rooting was not done. conclusionThe goal of this study was to introduce the suitable medium for Callogenesis and regeneration of H. perforatum for production and breeding aims. Tissue and cell culture methods are used for various purposes. The result of each section can be used effectively in research topics, including corrective tests, processes for increasing secondary metabolites, as well as increasing commercial products. Therefore, by introducing efficient and effective methods, it is possible to increase the production of plants by micropropagation in less time.
Growing vegetables
Ladan Ajdanian; hossein arouiee; Majid azizi
Abstract
Introduction: As an artificial light source, LED bulbs can help to grow better and faster greenhouse products. Meanwhile, blue and red light are important for plant growth. The quality of light in terms of color and wavelength can affect the morphological structure of the plants. Therefore, the use of ...
Read More
Introduction: As an artificial light source, LED bulbs can help to grow better and faster greenhouse products. Meanwhile, blue and red light are important for plant growth. The quality of light in terms of color and wavelength can affect the morphological structure of the plants. Therefore, the use of additional lights in winter, when light exposure is less than normal, can improve plant growth and flowering. It is also advisable to change the quality of light by using artificial light sources in controlled environments such as greenhouses in order to change the quantity and quality of agricultural products, especially the fruits of the fruit.Materials and Methods: In this research, the effect of complementary light and nutrition (commercial Calfomyth solution containing high calcium phosphorus and calcium elements along with micronutrient elements) as a pot experiment under non-soil culture conditions in the greenhouse, in the form of split-based plots experiment A completely randomized design with 3 light treatments including: natural light (control), 60% red light + 40% light blue and 90% red light + 10% blue light, and 2 nutritional treatments including: non-spraying with commercial fertilizer, Calfomyth and spraying A concentration of 2,000 in 3 replicates was established and implemented. The traits that were studied in this experiment are: 1- leaf number (count of leaves), 2- plant height by meter, with accuracy 0.01 m, 3- diameter with caliber with accuracy 0.01 mm, 4- Number of flowers (counting), 5- Time of flowering until the product reaches (counting the number of days), 6- Performance: Whole and red ripe fruits were planted and weighed separately from the total fruit weight Per plant was obtained in grams per plant. Statistical analysis was performed using JMP8 software and comparison of meanings was done using LSD test at 1% and 5% probability level.Results and Discussion: The results showed that the application of additional light on fruit yield, stem diameter and plant height, yield time and leaf number (p≤0.05) were significant. Spraying with Calfomyth could have a significant effect on stem diameter and number of leaves. In the traits such as fruit yield, number of flowers and leaves, the interaction effect of feeding and supplementary light was also significant. The highest number of leaves belonged to 60% red + 40% blue treatment, as well as spraying with Calfomyth (118), the highest number of flowers (50) was related to 90% red + 10% blue and Calfomyth treatment, and the smallest number ( 15) was related to control treatment. Also, the highest yield (3553 g of fruit per plant) was obtained in Calfomyth treatment with 90% red + 10% blue treatment and the lowest yield (434 g fruit per plant) The control was light and non-foliar treatment. Although light is an important source of photosynthesis, photosynthesis can also be related to a series of optical regulators and optical sensors. Blue and red light cause different optical sensors and expression of genes, each of which can have a positive or negative effect on plant growth and development. Therefore, it can be concluded that the presence of both wavelengths (blue and red) is necessary for conducting, and for this reason, more research is now focused on achieving an appropriate optical composition.Conclusions: In this research, all of the morphological traits examined in the tomato plant were subjected to additional exposure by LED bulbs, each of which had a special effect on their receptors in the plant. Maximize growth and yield in the plant. As expected, blue light on vegetative traits and red light were more effective on reproductive traits. It can be said that the existence of both wavelengths (blue and red) is essential for the better and complete growth of the plant. In addition to the positive effect of wavelengths, the positive effect of leaf spraying can also be observed, which, along with the neodymium, could improve growth. The results of this study showed that the performance and growth under the cover of LED light (red and blue combination) were superior to natural conditions. Therefore, it could be suggested that the use of these lamps, as well as spraying with Calfomyth commercial fertilizer, could be feasible for better production in controlled conditions (greenhouse).It seems that application of complementary lights with proper nutrition can improve the performance and growth of tomato plants in greenhouse conditions.
Medicinal Plants
Fatemehzahra Amirmohammadi; Majid azizi
Abstract
IntroductionThe Nepeta is one of the largest genus of Nepetoide subfamily, in the Lamiaceae family with about 79 species in Iran. Most of the species are perennial rarely annual with different vegetative forms, leaves covered with trichome. Glandular trichomes are widely distributed all over the aerial ...
Read More
IntroductionThe Nepeta is one of the largest genus of Nepetoide subfamily, in the Lamiaceae family with about 79 species in Iran. Most of the species are perennial rarely annual with different vegetative forms, leaves covered with trichome. Glandular trichomes are widely distributed all over the aerial part of Nepeta species, and their largely to its great importance and their structures can vary widely among plants species. Some species contain monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, cyclopentanoid iridoids derivatives and nepetalactones which they are used in folk medicine as, diaphoretic, diuretic, antitussive, febrifuge agent. In the present work, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to determine the nutlet micromorphology and also micromorphology and distribution of the glandular trichomes of Nepeta binaludensis “an Iranian endemic species” and Nepeta cataria in order to improve the knowledge of the species and to evaluate the usefulness of this feature for phytochemical and systematic purpose. The chemical composition of its essential oil was also analyzed. This paper provides a detailed description of trichome morphology and nutlet in Nepeta binaludensis andNepeta catariaspecies growing in Iran, by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and evaluates the systematic significance of such characteristics. Materials and MethodsThe research was conducted in research garden of Agricultural Faculty of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during 2017. Seeds of two Nepeta species were provided by Institute of Plant Sciences in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.The seeds were cultivation in greenhouse and the seedling (10 cm long) were transplanted in the field. During the summer aerial parts of the plants were harvested at flowering stage, dried in shade, and (30 g) were hydro distilled for 3 h using Clevenger apparatus. For SEM study, leaves were fixed with 3% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2 for 30 min at 4 °C. After washing in water the material was dehydrated through an ethanol gradient and critical point dried. Specimens were mounted onto SEM stubs using double-sided adhesive tape and coated with palladium. For nutlets observation, seed were directly mounted onto aluminum stubs using double-sided adhesive tape and coated with palladium and photographed. ResultBased on the obtained data, the surface leaves of both species (N. binaludensis and N.cataria) was observed forglandular and non-glandular trichomes distribution. (The glandular trichomes of the peltate types). Trichome density and size was variable as 7-21mm2 leaf surface (63-77 µm) in N. binaludensis and as 20-30 mm2 leaf surface (47-67 µm) in N.cataria. In both species only one types of glandular trichome was identified. Peltate trichomes comprise of a basal cell situated in the leaf epiderm with a four-celled secretory head. Nutlets of Nepeta were blackish-brown or brown in color. One type surface ornamentation, can be distinguished: smooth-type. The nutlet ornamental pattern was smooth type with finely granulated in N. binaludensis and reticulate pattern in N.cataria species. Water-distilled essential oil of the aerial parts of two speciescultivated in field, were analyzed by GC and GC/MS. In essential oil of N.binaludensis and N. cataria, 51 and 26 components were identified, respectively. The main components of the essential oil of N. binaludensis were 1.8-cineole (14.8%), β-Pinene (10.4%) and p-Cymene (9.8%). Main compounds of the essential oil of N. cataria were 4a-a, 7-a, 7a-b-Nepetalactone (72/76%) and 4a-a, 7-a,7a-a-Nepetalactone (17.86%). Depending on the composition of key compound identified in essential oils, Nepeta species have been divided in two groups. Conclusions Depending on the composition of main compound identified in the essential oils, Nepeta species have been divided in two groups. On the basis of our research N. binaludensis belong to 1.8-cineole chemotype and of N.cataria belong to the nepetalactone chemotype. The leaves of N. binaludensis, N.cataria have be glandular and non-glandular trichomes. One types of glandular trichomes are identified: Peltate trichomes.Trichomes are distributed at the surface of leaves, having various functions and are extremely variable in the plants, plant organs location, density, form, therefore their morphology and structure could be of taxonomical importance in plant. Glandular trichomes contain or secrete substances which are widely used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic as well as in pesticide industry. The variation in the structure, morphology, density, secretion and function is noticed among these trichomes distributed on different plant organs. Nutlet surface can be useful as a taxonomic characteres.
Medicinal Plants
Z. Safaei; M. Azizi; Gh. Davarinejad; H. Arouiee
Abstract
IntroductionThe ever-increasing tendency to the use of medicinal plants in the world has grown concerns about their cultivation and production processes. As medicinal plants are more compatible with the nature, special interest and attention has recently been given to herb therapy, and use of medicinal ...
Read More
IntroductionThe ever-increasing tendency to the use of medicinal plants in the world has grown concerns about their cultivation and production processes. As medicinal plants are more compatible with the nature, special interest and attention has recently been given to herb therapy, and use of medicinal plants, being limited by the rise of pharmaceutical drugs, has become again common and widespread due to a number of reasons. Nigella sativa L. is one of the herbs that has a variety of uses and has been being used in iran’s traditional medicine since old times. Today this plant is considered as one of the most important kinds of medicine. Therefore, it is of great importance to conduct some researches on the herbs around the country due to different ecological requirements. N. sativa belonging to buttercup family, with the scientific name of Ranunculaceae, is an annual, dicotyledonous, herbaceous plant. In several studies, N. sativa has been reported to have anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, strengthening of immune system, and anti-histamine and oil extract properties. Furthermore, several effects such as lowering blood sugar, lipids, and hypertension, excretion of bile and uric acid, protection of liver, kidney and cardiovascular tissues as well as anti-seizure, anti-cancer, anti-microbial and anti-parasitic effects related to this plant have been reported. The aim of the present study is to improve the yield and yield components and oil of medicinal plant N. sativa by anti-transpiration compounds under drought stress conditions. Materials and MethodsAn experiment was conducted at Research Station,Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, in 2012-2013. The research was performed using a split plot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The irrigation intervals (8 and 16 days) in main plots and anti-transpiration compounds of chitosan (0.25, 0.5 and 1%), Plantogopsyllium mucilage (0.5, 1 and 1.5%) and arabic gum (0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 %) were put in subplots with three replications. Also, the distance between the main plots in each block and distance between the two blocks were assigned as 100 cm and 200 cm, respectively; so that the moisture content of a plot had no effect on the adjacent plots. Planting date was April16 and planting was performed by hand in 0.5cm-deep furrows. Throughout the growing season, anti-transpiration compounds were applied concurrently with the imposition of drought stress, administered weekly at sunset until the flowering stage. Subsequently, yield, yield components, and oil content were measured. Results and Discussion Results showed that irrigation intervals had significant effects on all studied characteristics with the exception of 1000 seed weight. ncreasing irrigation intervals reduced percentage yield and yield components and oil of black cumin grains. Anti-transpirants compounds did have significant effects on percentage of oil and yield and yield components of black cumin grains. There were significant difference between different anti-transpirants compounds in terms of oil and yield components yield and of black cumin grains. The 8 days irrigation interval produced more grain yield compared with 16 days irrigation intervals (621.56 vs. 484.23 kg/ha). The highest oil (27.74%) and lowest (21.74%), respectively, at treatment anti-transpirants compound chitosan1 percent With 8 days irrigation interval and gam arabic 0.25 percent was obtained with 16 days irrigation interval and chitosan stimulating abscisic acid synthesis in the treated plant would result in stomatal closure, reduction of stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and water content. They also pointed out that the anti-transpiration effect of chitosan was because of its stimulatory effect in increasing abscisic acid concentration in the treated leaves of bean plant. As the above compounds are natural and biodegradable, as well as safer and less expensive than other chemical anti-transpiration compounds, they can serve as a good alternative to the chemical compounds. Cognition and expertise in water relations of plant and drought stress tolerance is considered as the main program in agriculture and the ability to withstand this stress is of great economic importance. Conclusion The anti-transpiration compounds led to significant changes in terms of all the studied traits compared to the control, indicating the effectiveness of theses natural compounds. Providing the appropriate conditions, 1% chitosan treatment can enhance the yield under drought stress. Spraying by arabic gum did not improve the growth conditions. According to this experiment, 1% chitosan treatment and 1.5% Plantago psyllium mucilage is considered the most appropriate strategy to enhance the yield of Nigella sativa under drought stress.
Medicinal Plants
Alireza Moshrefi-Araghi; Seyyed Hossein Nemati; Mahmood Shoor; Majid Azizi; Nasrin Moshtaghi
Abstract
Introduction Mentha is one of the most important genera of aromatic plants which belongs to the Lamiaceae family. The genus of Mentha is distributed across Asia, Africa, Australia, Europe, and North America. Mentha longifolia L., also known as wild mint, is a fast-growing aromatic perennial herb. ...
Read More
Introduction Mentha is one of the most important genera of aromatic plants which belongs to the Lamiaceae family. The genus of Mentha is distributed across Asia, Africa, Australia, Europe, and North America. Mentha longifolia L., also known as wild mint, is a fast-growing aromatic perennial herb. It is widely used as herbal medicine and is beneficial for the immune system and fighting with secondary infections. The essential oil of this plant is partly responsible for the decongestant, antispasmodic and antibiotic effects. Currently, much emphasis is being laid on conserving plant germplasm as valuable bio-resources. Selection between and within accessions for a high level of herbage yield and other characters requires an effective tool to be applied by mint breeders. Achieving to cultivars that are more capable of optimum producing is a breeding goal. The objectives of this study were to analyze the diversion of the agronomical traits of Mentha longifolia L. genotypes from different regions of Iran under a similar condition in order to find the superior genotypes and introduce for the domestication of this plant. Material and MethodThis research was performed at the research field of the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The field is located at 36˚15' North latitude and 59˚38' East longitude, at an altitude of 985 meters. The information related to temperature and precipitation was obtained from climate station. Soil sampling was done in the depth of 0.3 meter and physical experiments on samples were done before starting the experiment. The field was fertilized by 25 kg/ha animal manure. Seeds of 20 genotypes of M. longifolia L. were prepared from Gene Bank of Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands and a view of the wild mint genotypes distribution was presented on the map. The experiment was performed in a field with 500m2 areas in 2015-2016 growing seasons. The experiment in form of compound analysis arranged in complete randomized design with three replicates of 20 wildmint's genotypes in every replication. In each furrow, fourteen bush was totally studied, in which the distance between the two plants was 20 cm. The plot was considered 1.2 by 3 m and the distance between rows was 0.50 m. The dimension in the plots for every replication area was 3.6 m2 and the distance between blocks were 1.5 and between experimental units were 0.5 meters. Picking up was done after elimination of 0.5 meters from every side of replication. The essential oil was extracted using Clevenger type apparatus and by hydrodistillation. Results and DiscussionAnalysis of variance showed that the effect of the diversity among the genotypes on morphological, agronomical and essential oil yield parameters of wild mint was significant (P≤0.01). The results of this study showed that Mentha longifolia L. herb has a high diversity under the same culture conditions among genotypes collected from 20 regions of Iran. Correlation result shows that vegetative organs have more effect on the essential oil content than the reproductive organs. This may be due to the distribution of essential oil accumulation and storage sites, which requires further research in this regard. The study of vegetative and reproductive characteristics suggests that the genotypes of the dry and semi-arid climates have different conditions, which may causes the separation of their genotypes compared with the other genotypes. The bi-plot, based on PC1 and PC2, reflects the relationships between the studied genotypes. The results of bi-plot of cluster analysis confirmed that genotypes were divided into two main groups based on agronomical and morphological traits. Conclusion Finally, plants of genotype G13 belongs to Hormozgan province and then G16 genotype belongs to Khuzestan province were selected because of more biomass, more aerial part volume and also the most essential oil performance compared to the other genotypes. Desirable traits for the aerial part such as the time of flowering, leaf length, leaf width, plant height, the highest number of leaves in the stem and internode distance are important traits that should be considered. In addition, the cultivation of these genotype in order to the further production can be the great help in the domestication of this species and, given the fact that the diversity is a precursor of breeding, this research can be an introduction for future breeding operations. However, further research is needed to confirm the phytochemical superior genotypes.
Medicinal Plants
A. Balandari; M. Azizi; M. Khodabandeh
Abstract
Introduction
Barberries are small fruits with appealing colors and tastes, and have a great diversity in Iran. There are numerous indigenous barberry genotypes in Iran, which have remarkable therapeutical and nutritional attributes. Seedless barberry is the most famous genotype which fruits are ...
Read More
Introduction
Barberries are small fruits with appealing colors and tastes, and have a great diversity in Iran. There are numerous indigenous barberry genotypes in Iran, which have remarkable therapeutical and nutritional attributes. Seedless barberry is the most famous genotype which fruits are rich in phytochemicals. Although Iran is one of the main habitats of the barberry species and hybrids and the seedless cultivar is considered as an exclusive crop for our country, a few products are being produced from such valuable crop in food industries.
Materials and Methods
In present study, fruit biochemical properties of the twelve barberry genotypes (including one seedless genotype and eleven seedy genotypes: 2-2, 4-1, 5-1, 5-2, 5-3, 8-3, 10-1, 11-1, 12-1, 13-1 and 14-2) of the barberry collection located in Research Institute of Food Science and Technology of Mashhad, were evaluated based on the fruit appearance. For this purpose, fruits were harvested in 2015 harvest time and divided into two parts. One part was dried in room temperature. Then dried fruits were kept in cool and dark place until analyses. The other part was kept fresh for some measurements including TSS, TA, TSS/TA and pH. Before all tests, fruits were deseeded and the properties of the pulp were determined. Biochemical properties included total soluble solid (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), TSS/TA ratio, fruit juice pH, total phenol content, total flavonoid content, total anthocyanin content, protein content, crude fiber, total sugar and minerals including Iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg), Zinc (Zn) and Copper (Cu). Data analysis was performed based on completely randomized design by Minitab software version 16 using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and differences among means were determined for significance at p≤0.05 using Tukey’s range test.
Results and Discussion
Results showed significant variation in biochemical properties of genotypes. Based on the results, genotype code #13-1 had the highest content of titratable acidity (5.61 g malic acid per 100 g fresh fruit weight) and the highest soluble solids content (5.5 °Brix). The highest amount of crude fiber (54.96%), Fe (138.49 ppm), Mg (1426.39 ppm) was related to genotype code #10-1 and the highest amount of anthocyanin (452.60 mg/100g), protein (4.26%) and Cu (6.80 ppm) belonged to genotype code #14-2. Two genotypes “Bidaneh” and code #5-3 displayed a distinctive content of total carbohydrates with respectively 59.61% and 25.67%. Furthermore, genotype code #11-1 showed the highest amount of Zn (18.85 ppm) among all.
Conclusion
Up to now, barberry mostly has been consumed as a food seasoning and garnish. All data of this study suggest that barberry, as a functional food, can partially cover the body's daily requirements. Therefore, a comprehensive study should be performed to determine all the capacities and uses associated with each genotype. Overall, genotype code #14-2 can be introduced as the best genotype in terms of flavonoid, anthocyanin, protein and copper content of all the evaluated genotypes. Considering its high content of anthocyanin, producing an edible colorant powder is possible. In conclusion, considering the great diversity, fruits of indigenous barberry genotypes can provide a rich source of minerals and phytochemicals for food purposes. Furthermore, achieving applied science in making products from such indigenous crop could lead into investments and economic development in regions in which barberry is cultivated.
Pomology
M. Hasanabadi; M. Azizi; Gh.H. Davarinejad; H. Bodaghi; H. Hokmabadi
Abstract
Introduction Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most important fruits cultivated in many areas with different climates all over the world. Grape, which is rich in antioxidants, flavonoids, anthocyanins and phenolic acids, is highly regarded in terms of economic value. Salicylic acid is one ...
Read More
Introduction Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most important fruits cultivated in many areas with different climates all over the world. Grape, which is rich in antioxidants, flavonoids, anthocyanins and phenolic acids, is highly regarded in terms of economic value. Salicylic acid is one of the compounds which have been used in recent years for improving the physicochemical properties of many fruits. The application of salicylic acid increases the shelf life of crops by inhibiting ethylene production and respiration, as well as by reducing the activity of some enzymes which are responsible for softening the cell wall. Furthermore, salicylic acid results in the enhancement of phenolic compound production by increasing the activity of some enzymes such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase.Materials and Methods The present study was conducted in 2014 on 13-year-old Shahroodi grapes that were grown using a head-training system with a spacing of 2m × 2m in "Shahrood" County, Semnan Province. A total of 60 grapevines with uniform age and growth characteristics were selected for the experiment. Salicylic acid was obtained from Merck and solutions were prepared using a small amount of organic solvent and surfactant to reduce the surface tension of the solutions. For the purpose, the Salicylic acid powder was dissolved in a few drops of ethanol and a few drops of Tween 20 for improving solution penetration to the plants, The solution was prepared at concentrations of 0 (control), 1, 2, 3 mM. Then the plants were sprayed two weeks after the fruit set stage (when berries were at the pea-sized stage with a diameter of 4 to 5 mm). The experimental design used in this experiment was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. After harvesting and transporting of fruits to the laboratory, different characteristics were measured:Chlorophyll and carotenoid ContentChlorophyll a, b, and total Chlorophyll and carotenoid content measured according to Arnon (1967) method in grape leaves. The extraction steps were carried out with full precision to minimize contact with heat and light. In order to stabilize the pigments, the samples taken from the central part of the mature leaves were immediately ground in liquid nitrogen. The samples were vortexed two times with an interval of one minute and stored for 1.5 hours at a temperature of 4 degrees Celsius in order to dissolve the pigments in cold acetone solvent. After that, they were centrifuged for 15 minutes at a speed of 6000 rpm. The supernatant after centrifugation of the samples was used to measure chlorophyll and total carotenoids. The absorbance of the samples was read at three wavelengths of 470, 645, and 663 nm using a Shimadzu UV (160) spectrophotometer. Using the absorbance of the samples in these three wavelengths and the equations below, the amounts of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and total carotenoids were calculated in terms of milligrams per gram of tissue sample weight.Fruit characteristics Fruit characteristics such as fruit yield, fruit firmness (with magnets-Taylor device), sugar and acid content, and content of phenolic compounds were also measured. The fruit tissue firmness was measured using a firmness tester (model FDKA 32, Wagner) and expressed in Newtons per square centimeter. The characteristics of soluble solids (TSS) were expressed using a handheld refractometer (Ataga, Japan) and expressed in terms of Brix, the pH of the extract was measured using a digital pH meter (Sartorius PP-20, Germany). Titratable acidity or TA was done through the titration of the extract using 0.1 normal sodium until pH 1.8-2.8 and its results were reported using the following formula and under the title of tartaric acid percentage.Total phenol content The amount of total phenol was measured by Folin-Ciocalteu method and spectrophotometry. The absorbance of the reaction mixture was measured after 120 minutes of storage in the absence of light at a wavelength of 765 nm using a Shimadzu UV spectrophotometer (160). The amount of total phenol was expressed from the standard curve in terms of mg of gallic acid per 100 grams of extract in three replicates for each sample and standard.Total flavonoid The amount of total flavonoid was measured by aluminum chloride calorimetric method. In this experiment, 50 microliters of methanolic extract from the flesh and fruit skin were combined with 10 microliters of 10% aluminum chloride and 10 microliters of 1 M potassium acetate. Then, 280 microliters of double distilled water were added to the mixture. After the samples were mixed, they were left at room temperature for 40 minutes. The absorbance of the reaction mixture was measured at a wavelength of 415 nm using a Shimadzu UV spectrophotometer (160) in three replicates. A blank containing double distilled water was used for comparison. The amount of total flavonoids was determined based on the standard curve of quercetin and the results were expressed in micrograms of quercetin per gram of fruit skin and flesh weight.Total anthocyanin The amount of total anthocyanin was measured using the difference in pH method. In this method, the absorbance was measured using a spectrophotometer at wavelengths of 520 and 700 nm along with potassium chloride and sodium acetate buffers with different pH values of 1 and 4.5.Results The results of the data analysis of variance showed that the application of salicylic acid resulted in significant differences in the measured characteristics. Therefore, the use of this compound improved the physical and biochemical quality of the treated grape clusters.Comparison of treatments means showed that using 2 mM salicylic acid brought about a significant effect on the amount of chlorophyll (a, b and total) and carotenoids compared to other treatments, especially control. Salicylic acid application caused a reduction in pH and soluble solids, and an increase in firmness, 100-berry weight and yield. The results of the study indicated a significant increase in organic acids and a decrease in reducing sugars in the grape clusters treated with salicylic acid. The highest amount of tartaric acid was found in the treatment with 2 mM salicylic acid, with an average of 0.66, while the control treatment had the lowest amount of tartaric acid, with an average of 0.52. This suggests that the use of salicylic acid led to a reduction in transpiration and consumption of organic acids. In terms of reducing sugars, the highest and lowest amounts were observed in the control treatment (14%/74) and the treatment with 2 mM salicylic acid (13%/60), respectively. Increasing the concentration of salicylic acid up to 2 mM resulted in the enhancement of anthocyanins and phenolic compounds contents, but higher concentrations (more than 2 mM) reduced the amounts of these compounds in treated fruits.Conclusion Pre-harvest use of salicylic acid could have a positive effect on the improvement of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of grape cv. Shahroodi. However, further comprehensive studies are needed to be conducted to recommend this compound to the growers of fruit trees.
Medicinal Plants
M. Khodabandeh; M. Azizi; A. Balandary; H. Arouiee
Abstract
Introduction
Barberries are a broad class of spiny evergreen or deciduous shrubs belonging to the Berberidaceae family. They are of great importance due to their different parts' nutritional and medicinal properties and their ornamental applications. Genus Berberis, the biggest genus ...
Read More
Introduction
Barberries are a broad class of spiny evergreen or deciduous shrubs belonging to the Berberidaceae family. They are of great importance due to their different parts' nutritional and medicinal properties and their ornamental applications. Genus Berberis, the biggest genus in Berberidaceae, includes more than 660 species. Barberry grows in Asia and Europe and has been used extensively as a medicinal plant in traditional medicine. In Iranian traditional medicine, several properties, such as antibacterial, antipyretic, antipruritic and antiarrhythmic, have been reported with unknown mechanisms of action. Incredible structural diversity among barberries' active components makes them a valuable source of novel therapeutic compounds. Seedless barberry (Berberis integerrima 'Asperma') is one of Iran's valuable indigenous medicinal plants. Common asexual propagation of this plant over the years and consequently low genetic diversity in populations of the seedless barberry restricts selection outcomes in breeding programs. Utilizing the indigenous wild genotypes of the barberry genus, which are easily able to cross-pollinate, is one of the best methods to increase genetic diversity. Accordingly, several wild seedy barberry genotypes were identified from all over Iran, collected and established in a collection in Mashhad; then, 16 genotypes were selected and their physical properties were studied.
Materials and Methods
In this study, ripe fruits of sixteen unique genotypes (i.e., Iranian seedless barberry and fifteen seedy genotypes) were harvested in October- November 2015 and kept in a refrigerator in order to measure some of their physical properties in fresh fruits (berry dimension, 100-berry weight, juice content and color indices). For other properties, fruits were dried at room temperature. Fruit cluster length was measured by means of a ruler, the number of berries/cluster and the number of set/aborted seeds in berry by counting, berry dimensions by a digital caliper, weight of fresh and dried 100-berry, percentage of pulp and seed as well as fruit juice content by a scale with 0.001 accuracy. Moisture content was determined using an oven with 75 ºC temperature for 48 hours. Color indices, including L*, a* and b*, were measured using a portable colorimeter (Konica Minolta Chroma Meters CR-410). This study was performed using a completely randomized design with three replications. Data were analyzed by Minitab software version 16 using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and differences among means were determined for significance at p<0.05 using the Bonferroni test.
Results and Discussion
The results indicated significant differences among genotypes. Based on the results, cluster length ranged between 1.67cm (code 5-3) and 6.29 cm (code 10-1); moisture content was between 8.20% and 11.84% in genotypes 8-3 and 13-2, respectively. The fruit juice content range of the studied genotypes was between 51.22% and 71.87%. Genotype 2-1 had the highest dimension values and the highest 100-berry fresh weight (30.72g) and dry weight (10.00g) fruits. The lowest weights of 100-berry were related to 14-1 and seedless barberry. Genotypes 5-2 had the highest pulp percentage (98.17%) and the lowest seed percentage (1.50%) and 10-1 had the lowest pulp percentage (51.93%) and the highest seed percentage (48.07%). The highest number of set seeds (1.73) and the lowest number of aborted seeds (zero) were found in (10-1) and (14-2), respectively. Based on the results, seedless barberry had the lowest number of set seeds (0.00) and the highest number of aborted seeds (3.27). Regarding fruit color indices, genotypes showed significant variability from orange to brown and dark blue. Color indices L*, a* and b* ranged (from 22.83 to 38.13), (2.31 to 37.76) and (1.18 to 2.28), respectively.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it can be said that all genotypes have considerable variability in fruit traits (color, fruit dimensions, pulp/seed percentage, moisture content, etc.). Based on the result of this study, genotype 5-2 was the most similar genotype to seedless barberry. The seedless barberry populations have low genetic diversity due to asexual propagation through suckers over many years. Indigenous genotypes can be a valuable genetic resource for future breeding programs to improve the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of seedless barberry and introduce new cultivars of seedless barberry with different colors and consequently different nutritional- medicinal properties.
Growing vegetables
S.A. Yaqoobi; H. Neamati; M. Azizi; M. Shoor
Abstract
Introduction Storage potential is an important characteristic for onion. Annually, a large quantity of worldwide onion production deteriorated during storage. The storage ability of onion is influenced by various endo- and exogenous factors including cultivar and storage conditions specially, temperature. ...
Read More
Introduction Storage potential is an important characteristic for onion. Annually, a large quantity of worldwide onion production deteriorated during storage. The storage ability of onion is influenced by various endo- and exogenous factors including cultivar and storage conditions specially, temperature. Based on literature, there is considerable genetic variation for onion storability in onion germplasms from different origins. Rivera Martínez et al. (2005) evaluated the storability of 18 local and 4 commercial onion cultivars in Spain. Their results showed that there was significant variation for storability among different onion cultivars, and interstingly the local cultivars had more storability than commercial ones. Onion storage could also affected by environmental conditions such as temperature. Benkeblia et al. (2000) studied the effects of various temperatures on respiratory parameters of onion. Their finding showed onion respiration were raised by increasing temperature. Likewise, the positive effect of higher temperature on enhancing the growth of sprouts and elevating transpiration has been reported (Miedema, 1998; Yoo et al., 1997). Although, Afghanistan is considered to be one of the origins of onion (Brewster, 1994) there are no reports on estimating the storability of Afghan local cultivars under different temperature conditions. So this research has been conducted to study the effects of various temperatures on storability of native onion cultivars of Afghanistan.Materials and Methods In this research, the plant materials consisted of 10 onion cultivars consisting eight local varieties “Hanaaie Harat”, “Zard-e-Harat”, “Ghermrz-e-Harat”, “Mazar-e-Sharif”, “Kabul”, “Sar-e-Pul”, “Ghonduz” and “Balkhaab” originated from Afghanistan, an Iranian cultivar (“Ghermez-e-Azarshahr”), and a commercial cultivar “Sweet Grano”. The cultivars were stored at two different temperature regimes (5 ºC and ambient temperature), during six-time intervals of 20 days. The average temperature of ambient storage was 13 °C ranging from 8-18 °C. The experiment lasted from November 6th, 2011 to March 5th, 2012. This research was performed in a completely randomized design based on split factorial design, with three replications. For each replication, 50 healthy non-sprouted bulbs were packaged in plastic nets. Storage potential related characteristics such as sprouting percentage, weight loss percentage, sprout length, and sprout weight/bulb weight ratio in 20 days intervals were measured. All data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS statistical software. Mean comparisons were calculated at 5% probability level using LSD when the F-value was significant (Fisher’s protected LSD).Results and Discussion The results showed that there were significant differences among cultivars for storage characteristics (weight loss percentage, sprouting percentage, length of sprouts and sprout weight/bulb weight ratio). “Ghonduz” and “Ghermrz-e-Harat” local cultivars had the most and least storage ability, 50% of bulb sprouting after 105 and 35 days, respectively. Rivera Martínez et al. (2005) and Ramin (1999) also reported Spanish and Iranian local cultivars had more storability compared to commercial cultivars. In 5 °C, weight loss of onion bulbs followed a linear model during storage period. But, in ambient storage, it was higher at the beginning and the end of storage period, showing the adverse effects of high temperatures on bulbs weight loss during storage. The interaction between cultivar and time was also significant. It showed onion weight loss differs in various intervals. It could be attributed to the genetic variation and morphological difference such as number and thickness of dry scales of onion bulbs. In ambient storage condition, onion sprouting percentage showed a sharp increase in early storage intervals and became stable in the late intervals. Under 5 °C treatment, it raised as a linear model with very slow slope. It seems that weight loss and sprouting of onion bulbs in ambient storage is dependent on temperature and relative humidity of environment. This finding is in agreement with previous reports (Baninasab and Rahemi, 2006; Forudi, 2005). The sprout length and the ratio of sprout weight to bulb weight was lower in 5 ºC than ambient temperature. Abdalla and Mann (1963) and Yoo et al. (1997) also reported that smaller sprouts were observed in lower temperatures. Conclusion In this experiment, the effects of temperature on storability of some local cultivars of onion originated from Afghanistan were studied in different intervals. It was found that the storage potential of onion bulbs could be influenced by genetic factors and environment conditions such as temperature. Findings of this research showed that sprouting percentage, weight loss percentage and onion sprout growth were less under 5 °C treatment than ambient temperature. Therefore, it was concluded that storing onion bulbs in low temperature conditions can reduce the onion spoilage and improve their storage life. Additionally, cultivars showed highly significant variations for all characteristics related to storage ability. Our findings showed that some local cultivars are more storable than commercial cultivars. Among the cultivars, “Ghonduz” cultivar has more storage potent as compared to all studied cultivars. Our results confirmed that local cultivars can be a good source of desirable genes related to storability. Subsequently, they can exploited to broaden the genetic base of breeding matreials.
Medicinal Plants
Zh. Zandavifard; M. Azizi
Abstract
Introduction: St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) is a medicinal plant which used mainly in treatment of mild depression, neurological disorders and has been recently shown to have anticancer potential. The principle medicinal components of St. John’s wort are hypericin, pseudohypericin, ...
Read More
Introduction: St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) is a medicinal plant which used mainly in treatment of mild depression, neurological disorders and has been recently shown to have anticancer potential. The principle medicinal components of St. John’s wort are hypericin, pseudohypericin, and hyperforin. Light is one of the most important environmental factors affecting plant growth, survival, reproduction and distribution. The light quality, light intensity, duration and photoperiod directly affect plant growth. Light quality refers to the color or wavelength reaching the plant's surface. A prism (or raindrops) can divide sunlight into respective colors of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Red and blue have the greatest impact on plant growth. Green light is least effective (the reflection of green light gives the green color to plants). Blue light is primarily responsible for vegetative leaf growth. The principle objective of the current study was to evaluate the effects of different spectral quality including red, blue, green and white on the growth factors and production of hypericin.Materials and Methods: This experiment was conducted on the basis of Completely Randomized Design with four treatments and 10 replications in the growth chamber in the Department of Horticulture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad (FUM), Iran. In this study, seeds were obtained from the research greenhouse of FUM. Seeds after soaking in running water for 24 hours were planted in small pots (250g). After the seedlings have reached to height of 25cm, each 10 pots were put inside the boxes (20×30cm) made of colored filters. Experiment continued in a growth chamber with day and night temperature 25 and 21°C, respectively, relative humidity 45%, 16 hours of light with the intensity of 1000 lux and 8 hours of darkness for 50 days. Then morphological parameters including plant height, number of stems, number of leaves, number and length of internodes, fresh and dry weight of shoot and root were measured. To count the number of black nodules, the upper, middle and lower parts of seedling were evaluated individually. Hypericin content of the H. perforatum plantlets were measured according to the previous work of Azizi & Omidbaigi, 2002. Data were analyzed statistically by using SAS and Excel software. The significant differences between means were assessed by Tukeyʼs test at P < 0.05.Results and Discussion: The results showed that morphological parameters including plant height, leaf number, internode length, root fresh weight, dry weight of stem and root were affected significantly by light treatments. Minimum and maximum of plant height was related to white and red lights, respectively. Increasing plant height under the influence of red light was due to the variation in levels of growth regulators. Red and blue light by changing of the GA hormone level in the plant and affected elongation of plant stem. Minimum and maximum of leaf number was related to blue and white light respectively. Also, other morphological traits including internode length, fresh and dry weights of stem and root showed significant differences. Internode length for white light was less than red, green and blue light. Maximum of the fresh and dry weight of shoot and root of seedlings was observed under white light. Results suggest that photosynthetic compounds move in plant under the influence of light quality. Also the number of black nodules in three different parts of plant and hypericin content were compared in plantlets under the effect of light quality. Results analysis also confirmed that different lights had the significant impact on the number of black nodules in upper and middle leaves of H. Perforatum seedlings. Seedlings treated with the red light had the highest number of black nodules in the middle section of H. perforatum. In the top third of St. John’s wort seedlings, red, blue and green light was inducted the highest number of black nodules formation than white light. The highest level of hypericin was related to red, white, blue and green lights, respectively. The number of black nodules in the plant and the hypericin content have positive correlation. It seems that in the seedlings treated with the red light, carbohydrates made from photosynthesis most used in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites than plant growth. In fact, carbon allelochemical compounds such as terpenes and phenolics have such metabolism direction to explain the increasing in secondary metabolites.Conclusion: Different light spectra affects plant hormones levels and with alteration in the primary and secondary metabolites lead to a change in the morphological and biochemical traits of plant. In general, it can commented that the quantity and quality of light is able to affect the growth and the active metabolites of medicinal plants and using red and white mixture of light during seedling growth period have an effective role on generation of more strong seedlings with higher potential production of active ingredients.
M. Azizi; H. Ahmadi; hossein arouiee
Abstract
Introduction: Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) is a relatively new oilseed crops with high value which its oil is the most important source of gamma linolenic acid. In this study, seed of Evening primrose was stored in different temperature and packaging materials to improve the content and quality ...
Read More
Introduction: Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) is a relatively new oilseed crops with high value which its oil is the most important source of gamma linolenic acid. In this study, seed of Evening primrose was stored in different temperature and packaging materials to improve the content and quality of its oil.
Materials and Methods: In order to study the effect of packaging, storage temperature and storage period on Evening primrose seed oil properties, a split-plot in time experiment was conducted on the basis of completely randomized design at 32 treatments and three replications. Treatments included four levels of storage period (3, 6, 9 and 12 months) as main plot, four levels of packaging (Paper with 0.15 mm, Aluminum with 0.12 mm, PolyVinylChloride (PVC) with 0.09 mm and Cellophane with 0.07 mm thickness) and two levels of temperature (4 °C and Ambient temperature (20 °C)) as sub plots. Seed packages of 100 grams stored in plant physiology laboratory of horticulture department of Ferdowsi university of Mashhad from May 2014 to May 2015. After each period of storage seed oil (extracted by soxhelet) acid and peroxide value were examined as oil quality index. The statistical analysis was performed using the JMP software version 8 and data means were compared using LSD test’s in 5% level of probability. Acid and peroxide value were measured according to standards of EEC REG 2568/91 and AOCS cd 8-53, respectively.
Results and Discussion: Based on the results, the simple effect of temperature, packaging material and storage time was significant on all the properties of evening primrose oil. Before storage, seed oil content was 16.45% (w/w) but after three months of storage the oil content increased to 19.75% w/w. From third month of storage until 9th a sharp decline was observed, and the oil content was 12.71 % w/w at the end of 9th months. Finally the seed oil content slightly increased until 12thmonth. Before storage, acid and peroxide value were reported 1.16 (mg KOH/g oil) and 2.4 (meq O2/Kg oil), respectively. During storage, acid value showed descending trend so that at the end of 6 and 12 months storage obtained 1.08 and 0.96 mg KOH/g oil, respectively. Oil peroxide value after third months reached to 3.14 (meq O2/Kg oil) and its maximum (9.82 meq O2/Kg oil) was detected at the end of storage period. Ambient temperature in terms of oil content and 4 °C in terms of oil quality were optimum condition for Oenothera seed storage. Seeds samples which packed in paper and cellophane material showed the most oil content (17.29% and 16.75%, respectively). Cellophane packaging in terms of acid (0.89 mgKOH/g oil) and peroxide value (5.05 meq O2/Kg oil) was diagnosed the best packaging material to preserve the quality of the oil during storage. Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on oil percentage was significant at 1%. The highest oil percentage (59/22%) was detected after three months of storage at ambient temperature. Interaction between packaging and storage temperature on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as aluminum packaging at ambient temperature and paper packaging in both temperatures had the highest acid value (1.15 and 1.11mg KOH/g oil, respectively). The lowest acid value (0.82 mg KOH/g oil) was detected in cellophane packaged seeds at 4°C temperature. Interaction between packaging material and storage period on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1%. The highest acid value (1.24 mg KOH/g oil) obtained after six months in paper packaged seeds and seeds samples which packed in cellophane material had the lowest acid value (0.72 mg KOH/g oil) after nine months of storage. Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on acid value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1%. The highest acid value (1.11mgKOH/g oil) was detected after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature. At the end of 12th months at 4 °C temperature, the lowest acid value (0.81mg KOH/g oil) was reported. Interaction between packaging material, storage temperature and storage period on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after six months of storage at 4°C temperature and cellophane packaged seeds after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature showed the highest acid value (1.34 mg KOH/g oil). The end of 9th months in cellophane packaged seeds at both temperature, the lowest acid value (0.72 mg KOH/g oil) obtained. Interaction between packaging material and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after 12 months of storage had the highest peroxide value (11meq O2/Kg oil). Seeds samples which packed in PVC and cellophane material after three months showed the lowest peroxide value (2.15 and 1.85 meq O2/Kg oil, respectively). Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1%. The highest peroxide value (10.01meq O2/Kg oil) was detected after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature. After three months of storage at 4°C temperature the lowest peroxide value (2.65 meq O2/Kg oil) obtained. Interaction between packaging material, storage temperature and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after 12 months of storage at 4°C temperature had the highest peroxide value (12 meq O2/Kg oil). The lowest peroxide value (1.60 meq O2/Kg oil) was detected in cellophane packaged seeds after three months of storage at 4 °C temperature.
Conclusion: Overall, evening primrose seed storage in paper and cellophane packaging during three months at ambient temperature to improve the content of oil was desirable. Seed storage in paper packaging at ambient temperature after12 months, reduced oil quality. Seeds samples which packed in PVC and cellophane material at 4°C temperature preserved the quality of evening primrose oil.
Z. Safaei; M. Azizi; H. Aroiee; Gh.H. Davarynejad
Abstract
Introduction: Nowadays Nigella Sativa plant is considered as a one of the most important kinds of medicine. Almost all the metabolic activities of plant cells, including the construction of active ingredients in medicinal plants, depend on water. Lack of absorbable water by plants can lead to the morphological, ...
Read More
Introduction: Nowadays Nigella Sativa plant is considered as a one of the most important kinds of medicine. Almost all the metabolic activities of plant cells, including the construction of active ingredients in medicinal plants, depend on water. Lack of absorbable water by plants can lead to the morphological, physiological and biochemical changes, including decrease of cell swelling and growth and thus reduction of leaf area and plant height, stomatal closure and photosynthesis restriction, increase in the soluble compounds for regulating the osmotic pressure, reduction of nutrient absorption and ultimately reduction of crop production. The use of anti-transpiration compounds is considered as a promising tool for the regulation of transpiration in respect of water conservation at an optimal level, where the strategies such as the use of anti-transpiration compounds have the potential for transpiration regulation. The aim of the present study is to improve the biochemical characteristics of medicinal plant N. sativa by anti-transpiration compounds under drought stress conditions. Materials and Methods: The research was done using a split plot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The irrigation intervals (8 and 16 days) in main plots and anti-transpiration compounds of chitosan (0.25, 0.5 and 1 %), Plantago psyllium mucilage (0.5, 1 and 1.5 %) and Arabic gum (0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 %) were put in subplots with three replications. The distance between the main plots in each block and distance between the two blocks were also assigned as 100 cm and 200 cm, respectively; so that the moisture content of a plot had no effect on the adjacent plots. Anti-transpiration compounds were sprayed simultaneously with applying drought stress till the flowering stage once a week at sunset. Phenolic compounds, proline, chlorophyll, carotenoids, essential oil were measured. Results and Discussion: The results showed that there were significant differences between treatments in all studied traits. The best rate of the measured traits was observed at 8-day irrigation interval and chitosan treatment. The results obtained from the study showed that the effect of irrigation intervals and anti-transpiration compounds on the measured traits were significant. The best rate of the measured traits was observed at 8-day irrigation interval and chitosan treatment. The amount of phenolic compounds, proline, chlorophyll and carotenoids increased at 16-day irrigation interval, in which the increase is considered a type of drought tolerance mechanism. Different levels of anti-transpiration compounds decreased the chlorophyll, carotenoids, phenolic compounds, proline, essential oil percentage and yield. Conclusion: The important processes, including nutrition, photosynthesis, stomatal opening and closure and growth are all influenced by water. Plants are constantly living in tension and develop morphological and physiological changes in the structures and compositions and chemical processes for coping with this tension. In this study, it was observed that the level of phenols, proline, chlorophyll and carotenoids would increase at 16-day irrigation interval, where the increase is considered as a drought tolerance mechanism. The anti-transpiration compounds also led to the significant changes in terms of all the studied traits compared to the control, indicating the effectiveness of theses natural compounds. As the above compounds are natural and biodegradable, as well as safer and less expensive than other chemical anti-transpiration compounds, they can serve as a good alternative to the chemical compounds. Cognition and expertise in water relations of plant and drought stress tolerance is considered as the main program in agriculture and the ability to withstand this stress is of great economic importance.
S. Mohammadi; M. Azizi; J. Vaezi
Abstract
Introduction: Thyme is a perennial plant belongs to Lamiaceae. Thymus is a well–known medicinal plant, native to Southern Europe and its essential oil is manufactured commercially for use in cough drops, mouth-washes, liniments, toothpastes, detergents and perfumes. The herb is approved by Commission ...
Read More
Introduction: Thyme is a perennial plant belongs to Lamiaceae. Thymus is a well–known medicinal plant, native to Southern Europe and its essential oil is manufactured commercially for use in cough drops, mouth-washes, liniments, toothpastes, detergents and perfumes. The herb is approved by Commission E in the treatment of bronchitis, whooping cough and upper respiratory inflammation. The Thymus genus comprises over 300 species of which, 18 are found in Iran, which grow wild in many regions and four of them are endemic. There are serious difficulties in the taxonomical interpretation of the taxa belonging to the genus Thymus owing to the high variability of populations with respect to many morphological and micro-morphological traits. The morphology and different components of essential oils in different species of Thymus are variable due to hybridization and polyploidization, despite its rare self-pollination. In general, intraspecific hybrids of the genus Thymus seem to possess intermediate morphological characteristics and composition of essential oil in comparison with the relevant characteristics of the parent plants. The accumulation of the essential oil takes place in gland hairs, which are distributed on the surface of the epidermis of the aerial parts of the plant. The content of the essential oil can depend on origin, climate, harvest, as well as drying and storage conditions. By carefully examining the structural, phenotypic, chemical and genetic aspects of the natural populations of a plant, it is possible to select either them or samples from them as an important step in the process of breeding the desired medicinal plant.
Material and Methods: In order to have a comparison microscopically and morphologically characteristics of Thymus vulgaris, two landraces of Thymus transcaspicus were studied in completely randomized design with four replications at the faculty of Agriculture in Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. Inflorescence length, number of flowers per inflorescence, shoot height, leaf, bud and flower length, leaf width, the largest diameter of canopy, weight, fresh and dry herb yield, percent of essential oil, distinct and type of trichomes, were measured. For glands morphological and structure analysis leaves were processed according to conventional techniques for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In order to obtain comparable results the leaves from the third node of the apex were used for SEM analyses. Leaf samples were fixed in glutaraldehyde and paraformaldehyde. After being dehydrated, they were coated with gold in the vacuum evaporator. Finally, the preparations were observed and photographed with a KYKY-2800B SEM.
Results and Discussion: The ANOVA of the data showed that there was considerable variation for all studied characters. Results of mean comparisons showed that the highest height, the largest diameter of canopy and percent of essential oil were for T. vulgaris. Maximum inflorescence length, number of flowers per inflorescence, leaf, bud and flower length, leaf width, was also recorded for T. transcaspicus. Results of essential oil (EOs) analysis by GC/MS showed that thymol and carvacrol were the major compounds of all EOs samples, with highest and lowest content observed thymol and carvacrol in T. vulgaris (64.75 and 6.78 %). T. vulgaris produced more essential oil as compared to another thyme species. Two types of glandular trichomes are distributed on the outside surface of leaf, namely, peltate ones (PGTs) and capitate ones (CGTs). The glandular hairs of Lamiaceae likely release various secretions, such as the essential oil and polysaccharide. When trichomes got matured, essential oil could be found on all of the glandular trichomes on aerial organs of Thymus. Besides essential oil, what else trichomes could secrete needs further study.
Conclusion: The essential oil is highly complex chemical compounds. The content and composition of it vary depending on season, growing conditions, and plant species. High essential oil content is related to a much secretion of glandular trichomes. An application for variety protection was filed for ‘T. vulgaris’, now recommended to producers in Mashhad interested in a thymol-rich thyme. We can carry out a selection program to optimize quality and yield of thyme (T. transcaspicus L.) landraces, with used of T. vulgaris and crossing with clones of T. transcaspicus.
H. Farhadi; M. Azizi; S.H. Nemati
Abstract
Introduction: Drought is an event that happens due to lack of rainfall in a period of time. The occurrence of drought, reduces available soil water, but water losses through evaporation and transpiration is constantly increasing. The first stage of the plant, which may be faced with drought, is ...
Read More
Introduction: Drought is an event that happens due to lack of rainfall in a period of time. The occurrence of drought, reduces available soil water, but water losses through evaporation and transpiration is constantly increasing. The first stage of the plant, which may be faced with drought, is germinating. Since Germination begins with water uptake, lack of water at this stage in terms of duration and intensity of the stress causes or reduce germination percentage and germination rate. Because of the heterogeneity of soils in the field and lack of control of the environmental factors such as drought, laboratory research on the stress is considered. Some of these methods can be used to study the reaction of the landraces to the solutions from materials polyethylene glycol. This study aimed to investigate the characteristics of the native population of fenugreek germinating rate under drought stress conditions and identify landrace was incurred.
Materials and Methods: To investigate the effect of drought stress on germination and seedling growth characteristics of native landrace fenugreek, an experiment was conducted in a Completely Randomized Design with three replications in Seed Laboratory of University of Mashhad in 2014. The experiment treatments consisted of eight landraces of fenugreek of Esfahan, Tabriz, Hamedan, Sari, Challous, Amol, Mashhad and Yassooj on polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6000) at four levels: (0, 3, 6 and 9 times) were replicated three times. The stress test for the simulation of polyethylene glycol 6000 was used and the amount of material needed to create each of the stress levels using the formula Michel and Kaufmann respectively. To (control) and distilled water was used. Landraces seed of fenugreek the city of Esfahan, Tabriz, Hamedan, Sari, Challous, Amol, Mashhad and Yassooj purchased before the start of the experiment with a three percent solution of hypochlorite for two minutes to disinfect and then were washed three times with distilled water on the twelfth day, seeds and traits such as root length and root out the Petri measure.
Results and Discussion: In the study the interactions between landrace and drought, the rate of decline in most of the traits was related to native populations of fenugreek, Tabriz, Hamadan, Sari, Challous, Amol, Yasuj and Mashhad, respectively (-9 times) compared to control (0 times). As can be seen, the Isfahan landrace was more stable in most of the traits due to changes in drought levels. On the other hand, as the drought stress increased, the percentage and rate of germination of fenugreek seeds decreased. Fenugreek seed germination rate and percentage with increased drought stress the germination rate under drought stress sensitivity was higher than the percentage of germinating. The plants grow in different stages react differently to drought show seed germination and seedling production and a dry condition indicates that the plant is a potential for drought tolerance but that does not mean that the seedlings start to grow in dry conditions, can continue to grow in the same conditions.
zahra karimian; Ali Tehranifar; Mohammad Bannayan; Majid Azizi; Fatemeh Kazemi
Abstract
Introduction: Considering population growth and urbanization development, one of the main requirements of the urban society is to create appropriate life condition for dwellers. The microclimate is considered as one of the factors that affect the activity of people in the environment and in terms of ...
Read More
Introduction: Considering population growth and urbanization development, one of the main requirements of the urban society is to create appropriate life condition for dwellers. The microclimate is considered as one of the factors that affect the activity of people in the environment and in terms of tourist and recreational industry, it is considered as an important source of economic. Many climatic parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, radiation and wind speed can affect the quality of people's recreational activities. So far, many studies have been conducted in the world about the positive effects of vegetation specially trees in the urban landscape on the optimizing of microclimate and human thermal comfort. The cooling mechanism of trees and clouds in an area mainly by directly shading the ground surface and indirectly by supplying humidity are similar. Thus, perhaps it be possible to calculate the changes in temperature and relative humidity based on cloud categories and impute it to tree canopy and vegetation size. The purpose of the present study was to answer followed questions, 1) does the use of single tree produce a sensible difference in temperature and humidity relative to open space? 2) Does the acacia tree as an indicator for a broad-leaved species compare to the pine tree as an indicator for the needle species in terms of the microclimatic variation of around themselves act differently? 3) Do the microclimatic elements (Temperature and relative humidity) under the canopies are comparable to various cloudiness conditions?
Materials and Methods: The experiments were conducted at Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The climate data under two species of false acacia (Robinia pseudoacacia) and pine trees (Pinus eldarica) and open space were received from Mashhad weather station over a period of 19 years, recorded and analyzed. In the comparison of the effects of vegetation and cloudy conditions on the temperature and relative humidity an assumption was proposed that has been mentioned in the following. The differences between the means of temperature and relative humidity obtained under SKC (Sky Clear) cloudiness conditions and in open space; under SCT (Scattered Sky) conditions and pine trees; and under BKN (Broken Sky) conditions and false acacia tree must be equal or these differences must be statistically not significant. In addition to the effect of tree canopy, the effects of days and hours on the temperature and humidity were investigated. To analysis and also mean comparison, SPSS 16 software was used.
Results and Discussion: The results showed that the temperature (decreasing) and relative humidity (increasing) were significantly different among various cloudiness conditions during 19 years. The results also indicated that between the temperatures recorded under the canopy of pine and false acacia trees, and also among of recorded relative humidity in two trees specious with corresponding outdoor spaces there were significant differences. Also, there were no significant differences among the temperature of the clear sky and the partly cloudy with that of the mostly cloudy sky. Further, clear sky and mostly cloudy sky showed significant differences in terms of relative humidity. Mostly cloudy sky and the partly cloudy sky compared with pine and false acacia trees were about 4.6 and 4.5oC cooler, respectively. The cloud covers, also could enhance the more level of relative humidity in the environment in comparison with single tree canopy, so that were caused a wetter environment equal to16.6 and 8.4 percent, respectively. The results also showed that temperature and relative humidity created by the shade from false acacia and pine trees are not comparable with the same climatic factors created by partly cloudy and mostly cloudy skies. In the present study, false acacia as a broad-leaved tree compared with pine tree and also open space could cool the environment about 0.65 degree C more that is in line with previous studies that showed the microclimatic impact of vegetation depend on crown and leaf size. Temperature and relative humidity in vegetation (trees) and cloudy condition are not comparable with microclimate and their impact on the environment is not the same. The cloud covers, also could enhance the more level of relative humidity in the environment in comparison with single tree canopy, so that were caused a wetter environment equal to16.6 and 8.4 percent, respectively.
Conclusion: This finding showed that climatic effects of cloud covers had no similarity compared with two studied trees species. It may also indicate that green space and greenery should not also be ignored in areas where cloudy skies are mostly present throughout the year.
zainab safaei; majid azizi; Hossein aroiee; Gholamhossein davarynej
Abstract
Introduction: Nigella sativa L. is one of the herbs that has a variety of uses and has been used in Iran’s traditional medicine since old times. Today this plant is considered as one of the most important kinds of medicine. Almost all the metabolic activities of plant cells, including the construction ...
Read More
Introduction: Nigella sativa L. is one of the herbs that has a variety of uses and has been used in Iran’s traditional medicine since old times. Today this plant is considered as one of the most important kinds of medicine. Almost all the metabolic activities of plant cells, including the construction of active ingredients in medicinal plants, depend on lack of absorbable water by plants can lead to the morphological, physiological and biochemical changes, including decrease of cell swelling and growth and thus reduction of leaf area and plant height, stomatal closure and photosynthesis restriction, increase of soluble compounds for regulating the osmotic pressure, reduction of nutrient absorption and ultimately reduction of crop production. The use of anti-transpiration compounds is considered as a promising tool for the regulation of transpiration in respect of water conservation at an optimal level, where the strategies such as the use of anti-transpiration compounds have the potential for transpiration regulation. The aim of the present study is to improve the yield and yield components of medicinal plant N. sativa by anti-transpiration compounds under drought stress conditions.
Materials and Methods: The research was done using a split plot experiment on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The irrigation intervals (8 and 16 days) in main plots and anti-transpiration compounds of chitosan (0.25, 0.5 and 1 %), Plantago psyllium mucilage (0.5, 1 and 1.5 %) and arabic gum (0.25, 0.5 and 0.75 %) were put in subplots with three replications. Also, the distance between the main plots in each block and distance between the two blocks were assigned as 100 cm and 200 cm, respectively; so that the moisture content of a plot had no effect on the adjacent plots. Planting date was April 16 and planting was performed by hand in 0.5cm-deep furrows. Anti-transpiration compounds were sprayed simultaneously with applying drought stress till the flowering stage once a week at sunset. Plant height, leaf area index, irrigation water efficiency index, leaf temperature and stomatal conductance were measured.
Results and Discussion: The results showed that there were significant differences between treatments in all studied traits. The best rate of the measured traits was observed at 8-day irrigation interval and chitosan treatment. Providing plant favorite conditions such as reducing plant temperature, increasing morphological traits comparing to rainfed at 16-day irrigation interval. Applying arabic gum did not improve growth but acted as a growth inhibitor. Anti-transpiration compounds led to significant changes in all the studied traits compared to the control, indicating the effectiveness of these natural compounds. Chitosan stimulating abscisic acid synthesis in the treated plant would result in stomatal closure, reduction of stomatal conductance, transpiration rate and water content. It also pointed out that the anti-transpiration effect of chitosan was because of its stimulatory effect in increasing abscisic acid concentration in the treated leaves of bean plant. As the above compounds are natural and biodegradable, as well as safer and less expensive than other chemical anti-transpiration compounds, they can serve as a good alternative to the chemical compounds. Cognition and expertise in water relations of plant and drought stress tolerance is considered as the main program in agriculture and the ability to withstand this stress is of great economic importance.
Conclusion: The important processes, including nutrition, photosynthes is, stomatal opening and closure and growth are all influenced by water. In this study, it was observed canopy temperature and stomatal conductance would increase at 16-day irrigation interval, where the increase is considered as a drought tolerance mechanism. Also, the anti-transpiration compounds led to significant changes in terms of all the studied traits compared to the control, indicating the effectiveness of theses natural compounds. Providing the appropriate conditions, 1% chitosan treatment can enhance the yield under drought stress. Spraying by arabic gum did not improve the growth conditions. According to this experiment, 1% chitosan treatment and 1.5% Plantago psyllium mucilage is considered the most appropriate strategy to enhance the yield of Nigella sativa under drought stress.
hoda moradi; Majid Azizi; Vahid Rowshan; Hossein Arouiee
Abstract
Introduction: The genus Nepeta with the common Persian name “Pune-Sa” is one of the most important genera of Lamiaceae family. It has aromatic plants which are endemic of Iran. Its different species are distributed almost in all parts of Iran. Some of these species are valuable in medicine and used ...
Read More
Introduction: The genus Nepeta with the common Persian name “Pune-Sa” is one of the most important genera of Lamiaceae family. It has aromatic plants which are endemic of Iran. Its different species are distributed almost in all parts of Iran. Some of these species are valuable in medicine and used for medicinal purposes. Nepeta glomerulosa Boiss. is one of the most medicinal species of this family. This study was conducted to examine seed germination characteristics and to evaluate cardinal temperature of seed germination of N. glomerulosa.
Materials and Methods: Seeds of N. glomerulosa were collected from Abade region of Fars province in the middle of September 2014. Treatments were including four levels of cold period (1, 2, 3 and 4 weeks at5ºC) and four levels of potassium nitrate (0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 %). Factorial experiment with a completely randomized design in three replications was done, to evaluate seed germination percentage, germination rate, T50, mean germination time, root and shoot length, root and shoot fresh and dry weight. Also, the effects of 8 constant temperatures including 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 ˚C and 3 variable temperatures including 5/15, 10/20 and 20/30 ˚C (12h light/12h dark), was investigated to evaluate germination percentage, germination rate, mean germination time and cardinal temperatures of seed germination.
Results and Discussion: The results showed that cold period and potassium nitrate interaction was significant only on root length. Potassium nitrate had no significant effect on germination rate, but the germination rate was increased by increasing the duration of being at5 ˚C, so that the highest germination rate was observed in 3 and 4 weeks at5 ˚C (1.7 and 1.2 /day respectively). The lowest germination rate (1.0 /day) was observed in 2 weeks at5 ˚C treatment. The maximum shoot length (51.5 mm), shoot fresh weight (30 mg), shoot dry weight (1.3 mg) and root dry weight (0.6 mg) was obtained in 2 weeks at 5 ˚C treatments andpotassium nitrate 0.1% was also the best treatment for abovementioned traits. Among the treatments, 3 weeks cold period and 0.1 % potassium nitrate showed the most positive effect on seed germination characteristics of N. glomerulosa, although, had no significant effect on germination percentage.
Based on the results of the second experiment, temperature had significant effect (P≤0.01) on germination percentage, germination rate and mean germination time. The highest amount of germination percentage (76 and 77.3 %), germination rate (4.4 and 5 /day) and mean germination time (5.1 and 5.4 /day) were recorded in the range of 20 to 25 ˚C. Germination rate and germination percentage were substantially reduced by increasing temperature above 25 ˚C. The day and night variable temperatures had significant effect on seed germination percentage and germination rate of N. glomerulosa seeds. The highest amount of germination percentage (72 and 69.3 %) and germination rate (4.6 and 5.7 /day) were observed at10/20 and 20/30 ˚C. The results of the relationships between temperature and germination rate showed that base, optimum and maximum temperatures for seeds of N. glomerulosa were 15 ˚C, 22 ˚C and 46 ˚C, respectively.
Conclusion: The overall results showed that most chilling occurred under natural conditions during winter and early spring which caused increasing inseed germination of lots of plants. This also found that increasingin chilling period significantly improved the seed germination characteristics of N. glomerulosa. Also, treating with potassium nitrate had significant effects on germination properties of N. glomerulosa. Although applying potassium nitrate and cold period did not show interaction effects on seed germination.
The effects of different day and night temperatures on seed germination rate and percentage have been reported in many medicinal and aromatic plants as may be due to the similarity of these conditions to the natural conditions. Comparing cardinal temperatures of N. glomerulosa with the other species of this genus indicated that they have different cardinal temperatures. Many of researchers reported that germination cardinal temperatures are significantly different amongspecies and different genotypes of species. Determining of cardinal temperatures helps us to estimate temperature range of wild species in natural areas, planting time and also suitable areas for cultivation.
